📚 Year 10 OCR Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | 十年级OCR心理学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook brings together the essential formulae for research methods and the key theoretical 'theorems' you need to master in Year 10 OCR GCSE Psychology. Use these concise revision cards to check your understanding of central tendency, graphical displays, and the core models for memory, perception, development, social influence, mental health, and brain function.
这本速查手册汇总了十年级 OCR GCSE 心理学研究方法中的核心公式以及你必须掌握的关键理论“定理”。运用这些精简的复习卡片，你可以快速核查对集中趋势、图表展示，以及记忆、感知、发展、社会影响、心理健康与大脑功能等核心模型的理解。
1. Measures of Central Tendency and Range | 集中趋势与离散趋势的测量
The three measures of central tendency summarise the centre of a data set. The range is the simplest measure of dispersion.
三种集中趋势量数用于概括数据集的中心。全距（范围）是最简单的离散趋势指标。
The mean is calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores.
均值（平均数）通过将所有分数相加再除以分数个数计算得出。
Mean = Σx ÷ n
The median is the middle score when all scores are arranged in order. For an even number of scores, average the two middle values.
中位数是将所有分数按大小排序后最中间的那个分数。当分数个数为偶数时，取中间两个分数的平均值。
The mode is the most frequently occurring score in the set.
众数是数据集中出现频率最高的分数。
The range tells us how spread out the scores are: subtract the smallest score from the largest score.
全距表示数据的分散程度：用最大值减去最小值即可求得。
Range = Highest value − Lowest value
2. Percentages and Ratios | 百分比与比率
Converting raw scores into percentages and ratios allows psychologists to compare results across different conditions or groups.
将原始分数转换成百分比和比率，有助于心理学家比较不同条件或不同组别的结果。
To express a score as a percentage of a total, divide the part by the whole and multiply by 100.
计算某一分数占总数的百分比，用该部分除以整体再乘以 100。
Percentage = (Part ÷ Whole) × 100%
A percentage change is often used to show increases or decreases from a baseline.
百分比变化常用于显示相对于基线水平的增加或减少。
Percentage change = ((New value − Original value) ÷ Original value) × 100%
Ratios compare one quantity to another. A simple ratio is written with a colon, e.g. 3:1.
比率用于比较两个数量。简单的比率用冒号表示，例如 3:1。
3. Displaying Data: Graphs and Tables | 展示数据：图和表
Different types of data require different graphs. Choosing the right visual display makes results easier to interpret.
不同类型的数据需要不同的图表。选择合适的视觉展示能让结果更容易解读。
- Bar charts: used for discrete (separate) categories; bars do not touch.
- 条形图: 用于离散（独立）类别；条形之间留有空隙。
- Histograms: used for continuous data; bars touch, and the area of each bar is proportional to the frequency.
- 直方图: 用于连续数据；条形紧贴，每个条形的面积与频数成正比。
- Scatter diagrams: show the relationship between two co‑variables; each point represents a participant's two scores.
- 散点图: 展示两个协变量之间的关系；每个点代表一名参与者的两个分数。
- Line graphs: often used to plot changes over time or conditions.
- 折线图: 常用于描绘随时间或条件的变化。
4. Variables and Hypotheses | 变量与假设
Every experiment has an independent variable (IV) that the researcher manipulates and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured.
每个实验都包含一个由研究者操控的自变量（IV）和一个被测量的因变量（DV）。
Extraneous and confounding variables must be controlled so that they do not affect the DV.
必须控制额外变量和混淆变量，以免干扰因变量。
A directional (one‑tailed) hypothesis states the expected direction of the difference or relationship, whereas a non‑directional (two‑tailed) hypothesis simply states that there will be a difference or relationship.
方向性（单尾）假设会指明差异或关系的预期方向，而非方向性（双尾）假设仅指出存在差异或关系。
5. Memory: The Multi‑Store Model | 记忆：多存储模型
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed that memory consists of three separate stores linked by processes of attention and rehearsal.
Atkinson 和 Shiffrin（1968）提出记忆由三个独立存储组成，通过注意和复述过程相连接。
| Store | Coding | Capacity | Duration |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensory register | Sense‑specific (e.g. iconic, echoic) | Very large | ~ ½ second |
| Short‑term memory (STM) | Mainly acoustic | 7 ± 2 items (Miller 1956) | 18‑30 seconds without rehearsal |
| Long‑term memory (LTM) | Mainly semantic | Potentially unlimited | Up to a lifetime |
Information flows linearly: attention takes information from the sensory register into STM; maintenance rehearsal keeps it in STM and can transfer it to LTM.
信息线性流动：注意将信息从感觉记录器转入短时记忆；保持性复述能将信息留在短时记忆并可能转入长时记忆。
6. Forgetting: Interference Theory | 遗忘：干扰理论
Interference theory explains forgetting in LTM as being caused by other memories disrupting recall, rather than the memory simply decaying.
干扰理论认为长时记忆的遗忘是由其他记忆干扰提取所致，而非记忆简单地消退。
Proactive interference: an older memory interferes with the recall of a newer memory.
前摄干扰：旧的记忆干扰提取新记忆。
Retroactive interference: a newer memory interferes with the recall of an older memory.
倒摄干扰：新的记忆干扰提取旧记忆。
Interference is strongest when the two sets of material are similar.
当两种记忆材料相似时，干扰效应最强。
7. Perception: Direct vs Constructivist Theories | 感知：直接理论与建构理论
Gibson's direct theory argues that perception is innate and relies on sufficient environmental information (optic array, affordances). The brain does not need to add meaning.
Gibson 的直接理论主张感知是先天性的，依赖充足的环境信息（光阵、功能可见性），大脑无需额外赋予意义。
Gregory's constructivist theory claims perception is an active, inferential process based on past experience and expectations. Visual illusions arise when inferences are wrong.
Gregory 的建构主义理论则认为感知是主动的推理过程，基于过去的经验和预期。当推理错误时便产生视错觉。
Key contrast: 'bottom‑up' (Gibson) versus 'top‑down' (Gregory) processing.
核心对比：“自下而上”加工（Gibson）与“自上而下”加工（Gregory）。
8. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段
Piaget proposed that children's thinking progresses through four invariant stages, each characterised by distinct logical abilities.
皮亚杰提出儿童的思维经过四个固定的发展阶段，每个阶段具有独特的逻辑能力。
| Stage and approximate age | Key features |
|---|---|
| Sensorimotor (0‑2 years) | Object permanence; learning through senses and actions |
| Pre‑operational (2‑7 years) | Egocentrism; animism; lack of conservation; symbolic play |
| Concrete operational (7‑11 years) | Conservation; decentration; logical reasoning about concrete events |
| Formal operational (11+ years) | Abstract reasoning; hypothetical‑deductive thinking; systematic problem solving |
9. Social Influence: Asch's Conformity Study | 社会影响：阿希的从众研究
Solomon Asch (1951) investigated whether people would conform to an obviously incorrect majority judgement in a line‑matching task.
Solomon Asch（1951）通过线条匹配任务，研究个体是否会从众于明显错误的大多数判断。
Key findings: About 37% of critical trial responses were incorrect conforming responses. 75% of participants conformed at least once.
关键结果：约 37% 的关键试次反应为从众错误，75% 的被试至少从众一次。
Three situational variables affecting conformity: group size (conformity increased up to 4‑5 confederates), unanimity (a single dissenter sharply reduced conformity), and task difficulty (more conformity when lines were more similar).
影响从众的三个情境变量：群体规模（增加至 4–5 名假被试时从众上升）、一致性（出现一名异议者会大幅降低从众）与任务难度（线条越相似，从众越多）。
10. Obedience: Milgram's Baseline Study | 服从：米尔格拉姆的基线研究
Stanley Milgram (1963) tested whether ordinary people would obey an authority figure instructing them to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a learner.
Stanley Milgram（1963）测试普通人在权威人物指令下，是否愿意对学习者施加不断增强的电击。
Shocking outcome: 65% of participants delivered the maximum 450‑volt shock. The findings highlight the power of the agentic state and legitimate authority.
惊人结果：65% 的被试施加了最高 450 伏的电击。这些发现突显了代理人状态与合法权威的力量。
Situational variables examined in later variations: proximity (touch proximity reduced obedience to 30%), location (rundown office reduced obedience to 48%), and uniform (ordinary clothes reduced obedience to 20%).
后续变体研究的情境变量：接近度（触碰接近度使服从降至 30%）、地点（破旧办公楼降至 48%）与制服（常服降至 20%）。
11. Mental Health: Biological and Cognitive Explanations | 心理健康：生物学与认知解释
The biological approach to explaining mental health problems (e.g. unipolar depression) points to neurotransmitter imbalances, such as low serotonin, and genetic vulnerability.
对心理健康问题（如单相抑郁）的生物学解释指向神经递质失衡（例如血清素水平偏低）以及遗传易感性。
The cognitive explanation emphasises faulty thought processes, such as Beck's negative triad: negative views of the self, the world and the future.
认知解释则强调错误的思维过程，例如 Beck 的负性认知三联征：对自我、世界和未来的负面看法。
Ellis's ABC model extends this: an Activating event triggers irrational Beliefs, which lead to maladaptive emotional and behavioural Consequences.
Ellis 的 ABC 模型进一步拓展：一个活化事件（A）会触发非理性信念（B），进而导致适应不良的情绪与行为后果（C）。
12. Brain and Neuropsychology: Synaptic Transmission | 脑与神经心理学：突触传递
Neurons communicate across a tiny gap called the synapse. The process is electro‑chemical and forms the biological basis of all behaviour.
神经元通过一个微小的间隙——突触进行交流。这一电化学过程构成了所有行为的生物学基础。
- An electrical impulse (action potential) travels down the presynaptic neuron.
- 电冲动（动作电位）沿突触前神经元传导。
- Vesicles release neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft.
- 突触囊泡释放神经递质分子进入突触间隙。
- Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron.
- 神经递质与突触后神经元上的受体位点结合。
- This triggers either excitation (more likely to fire) or inhibition (less likely to fire) in the postsynaptic neuron.
- 这会引发突触后神经元的兴奋（更易发放冲动）或抑制（不易发放冲动）。
- Reuptake or enzymatic breakdown terminates the signal.
- 再摄取或酶解终止信号。
Dysfunction in synaptic transmission has been linked to disorders such as depression and schizophrenia.
突触传递功能障碍已被发现与抑郁症、精神分裂症等障碍有关。
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