📚 Year 10 CCEA Biology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Guide | Year 10 CCEA 生物：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference guide gathers the essential formulae, equations, and key biological principles required for Year 10 CCEA Biology. Each entry is presented with a clear explanation in English followed by an equivalent Chinese translation, making it ideal for both revision and rapid recall. The handbook covers microscopy calculations, life process equations, enzyme theory, transport mechanisms, genetic laws, energy transfer, and classification rules — all aligned with the CCEA specification.
本速查手册汇集了 Year 10 CCEA 生物学所必需的重要公式、方程和关键生物学原理。每个条目都配备了清晰的英文说明和对应的中文翻译，非常适合复习和快速回忆。手册涵盖显微镜计算、生命过程方程、酶理论、物质运输机制、遗传定律、能量传递以及分类学规则，完全紧扣 CCEA 考试大纲。
1. Microscopy Magnification Formula | 显微镜放大率公式
The most fundamental calculation in microscopy links real object size to its image size. The formula is:
显微镜中最基本的计算将物体的真实尺寸与其图像尺寸联系起来，公式如下：
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
Image size refers to the size of the specimen as it appears under the microscope or in a micrograph, while actual size is its true dimension. The formula can be rearranged using the triangle method: cover the quantity you need, and the remaining two parts show whether to multiply or divide. Thus, Image size = Magnification × Actual size and Actual size = Image size ÷ Magnification. Always ensure both sizes are in the same unit; convert millimetres (mm) to micrometres (µm) by multiplying by 1000.
图像大小是指标本在显微镜下或显微照片中呈现的尺寸，而实际大小是其真实尺寸。该公式可通过三角形法变形：遮住你要求算的量，剩下的两个部分会提示乘除关系。因此，图像大小 = 放大率 × 实际大小，实际大小 = 图像大小 ÷ 放大率。务必确保两者单位一致；可将毫米（mm）乘以 1000 换算为微米（µm）。
When using an eyepiece graticule, it must be calibrated with a stage micrometer to find the length each graticule division represents. Record the number of graticule divisions matching a known stage micrometer length, then calculate that actual length per division. This value becomes the conversion factor for measuring specimens.
使用目镜测微尺时，必须用镜台测微尺校准，以确定每个测微尺分度的实际长度。记录与已知镜台测微尺长度对应的目镜分度数，再计算出每一分度的实际长度，该值即成为测量标本的换算因子。
2. Photosynthesis Equation | 光合作用方程
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and some other organisms convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. The overall word equation summarises the reactants and products:
光合作用是绿色植物及某些生物将光能转化为储存在葡萄糖中的化学能的过程。总体词方程式概括了反应物和生成物：
Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
This reaction requires the presence of chlorophyll and light energy. In chemical symbols, it is often written as 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. A common practical investigation uses an aquatic plant like Elodea to count oxygen bubbles produced per minute, allowing measurement of the rate under different conditions.
该反应需要叶绿素和光能参与。用化学符号常表示为 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂。光合作用速率受光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度的影响。常见的实验探究使用伊乐藻等水生植物，每分钟计数产生的氧气泡，从而测量不同条件下的速率。
The glucose produced is used for respiration, converted into starch for storage, or used to synthesise other organic molecules such as cellulose, proteins and lipids. Oxygen is released as a by-product, either used by the plant for respiration or diffused into the atmosphere.
生成的葡萄糖用于呼吸作用，转化为淀粉储存，或用来合成纤维素、蛋白质和脂质等其他有机物。氧气作为副产物释放，既可供植物自身呼吸利用，也可扩散到大气中。
3. Respiration Equations: Aerobic and Anaerobic | 呼吸作用方程：有氧与无氧
Respiration is the process of releasing energy from glucose. It occurs in all living cells and is catalysed by enzymes. The type of respiration depends on the availability of oxygen.
呼吸作用是从葡萄糖中释放能量的过程，发生于所有活细胞中，由酶催化。呼吸类型取决于氧气的可利用程度。
Aerobic respiration (with oxygen) provides a large amount of energy and is summarised as:
有氧呼吸（需氧气）提供大量能量，概括方程为：
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water (+ energy)
The energy released is used for cellular activities such as muscle contraction, active transport, and maintaining body temperature. Carbon dioxide and water are waste products.
释放的能量用于肌肉收缩、主动运输、维持体温等细胞活动，二氧化碳和水为代谢废物。
Anaerobic respiration in animals occurs when oxygen is insufficient, such as during vigorous exercise. It yields less energy and produces lactic acid:
动物无氧呼吸发生在供氧不足时，例如剧烈运动期间，产能较少并产生乳酸：
Glucose → Lactic acid (+ energy)
Lactic acid build-up can cause muscle fatigue and cramps. Owing an oxygen debt, the body must later supply extra oxygen to break down lactic acid into carbon dioxide and water in the liver.
乳酸积累会导致肌肉疲劳和抽筋。由于欠下氧债，机体随后必须提供额外氧气，将乳酸在肝脏中分解为二氧化碳和水。
Anaerobic respiration in yeast (and some plants) follows a different pathway, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide:
酵母（及某些植物）的无氧呼吸则沿着另一条途径进行，产生乙醇和二氧化碳：
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide (+ energy)
This process is known as fermentation and is exploited in baking and brewing. Ethanol is toxic to yeast cells at high concentrations, limiting the duration of fermentation.
该过程称为发酵，被用于烘焙和酿酒。高浓度乙醇对酵母细胞有毒，因此会限制发酵的持续时间。
4. Enzyme Action Principles | 酶作用原理
Enzymes are biological catalysts — proteins that speed up metabolic reactions without being consumed. Their action is explained by the lock-and-key model: the enzyme's active site has a specific shape complementary to its substrate. When the substrate binds, an enzyme–substrate complex forms, and the reaction takes place; products are then released, leaving the enzyme unchanged.
酶是生物催化剂——能够加速代谢反应而自身不被消耗的蛋白质。其作用可用锁钥模型解释：酶的活性位点具有与其底物互补的特异形状。底物结合后形成酶–底物复合物，反应得以发生；接着产物释放，酶本身保持不变。
Enzyme activity is highly sensitive to temperature and pH. As temperature rises, kinetic energy increases, leading to more frequent collisions and a higher rate of reaction up to an optimum temperature. Beyond this point, the enzyme denatures: the active site loses its shape, and the substrate can no longer fit. The same principle applies to pH: each enzyme works best at a specific optimum pH. Extreme pH values disrupt the bonds maintaining the enzyme's tertiary structure, causing irreversible denaturation.
酶活性对温度和 pH 高度敏感。温度升高，动能增大，碰撞更频繁，反应速率上升直至最适温度。超过最适点，酶会变性：活性位点形状改变，底物无法再嵌合。pH 原理相同：每种酶在其特定最适 pH下活性最高。极端 pH 会破坏维持酶三级结构的键，造成不可逆变性。
The rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction can be measured by monitoring product formation or substrate disappearance over time. For example, the activity of catalase can be tracked by measuring the volume of oxygen gas released from hydrogen peroxide decomposition.
酶控反应速率可通过监测单位时间内产物的生成量或底物的减少量来测定。例如，过氧化氢酶的活性可通过测量过氧化氢分解所释放的氧气体积来追踪。
5. Membrane Transport Mechanisms | 膜运输机制
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient. It is a passive process requiring no cellular energy. Oxygen entering cells and carbon dioxide leaving cells are typical examples.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动，顺浓度梯度进行，为被动过程，不需细胞能量。氧气进入细胞、二氧化碳离开细胞都是典型例子。
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion involving water molecules moving through a partially permeable membrane from a dilute solution (high water potential) to a more concentrated solution (low water potential). Animal cells can burst or shrink in hypotonic or hypertonic solutions, while plant cells gain turgor pressure when water enters, supporting the plant.
渗透是扩散的一种特殊情况，指水分子通过半透膜从稀溶液（高水势）向较浓溶液（低水势）移动。动物细胞在低渗或高渗溶液中会胀破或皱缩；植物细胞吸水后产生膨压，起支撑作用。
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient — from low to high concentration — using energy released from ATP. Carrier proteins in the cell membrane bind the specific solute and change shape to pump it across. Examples include the uptake of mineral ions by root hair cells and the absorption of glucose in kidney tubules.
主动运输利用 ATP 释放的能量将物质逆浓度梯度从低浓度运向高浓度。细胞膜上的载体蛋白结合特定溶质并改变构象，将其泵过膜。例子包括根毛细胞吸收矿质离子和肾小管重吸收葡萄糖。
6. Mendelian Genetics Laws | 孟德尔遗传定律
Gregor Mendel's work on pea plants revealed fundamental patterns of inheritance. The Law of Segregation states that each organism possesses two alleles for each gene; these alleles separate during gamete formation so that each gamete carries only one allele. At fertilisation, offspring receive one allele from each parent, restoring the pair.
孟德尔的豌豆实验揭示了基本的遗传模式。分离定律指出，每个生物体对于每一基因拥有两个等位基因；形成配子时，等位基因分离，使每个配子只携带一个等位基因。受精时子代从每个亲本各得一个等位基因，重组为成对状态。
In a monohybrid cross studying a single gene, crossing two heterozygous individuals (Tt × Tt) typically yields a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of dominant to recessive traits, provided complete dominance. The genotypic ratio is 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt. A Punnett square visually organises the possible gamete combinations and helps predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.
在研究单基因的单基因杂交中，将两个杂合个体（Tt × Tt）交配，若为完全显性，通常会得到显性性状与隐性性状3:1 的表型比，基因型比为 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt。旁纳特方格（Punnett square）能直观排列可能的配子组合，帮助预测子代基因型和表型。
Key terminology includes: allele (variant form of a gene), dominant (expressed if present), recessive (expressed only when two copies are present), homozygous (two identical alleles), and heterozygous (two different alleles). These concepts underpin pedigree analysis and inferences about inheritance patterns.
关键术语包括：等位基因（基因的变体形式）、显性（存在即表达）、隐性（仅当有两个拷贝时才表达）、纯合（两个相同的等位基因）和杂合（两个不同的等位基因）。这些概念是家系图谱分析和推断遗传模式的基础。
7. Biomass and Energy Transfer Efficiency | 生物量及能量传递效率
In any food chain or web, only a portion of the energy stored in one trophic level is passed to the next. The transfer is limited because organisms use energy for respiration, movement, growth, and excretion, and some parts are uneaten. The efficiency of energy transfer is calculated as:
在任何食物链或食物网中，某一营养级储存的能量只有一部分传递到下一级。由于生物体将能量用于呼吸、运动、生长和排泄，加上部分未被取食，传递量有限。能量传递效率的计算公式为：
Efficiency (%) = (Energy in next trophic level ÷ Energy in previous trophic level) × 100
m²/year becomes biomass in secondary consumers, the efficiency is (1200 ÷ 8000) × 100 = 15%. Typical efficiencies range from 5% to 20%.
例如，若初级消费者营养级获得 8000 kJ/m²/年，而次级消费者生物量中只含有 1200 kJ/m²/年，则效率为（1200 ÷ 8000）× 100 = 15%。典型效率在 5% 到 20% 之间。
Biomass pyramids often show a decrease in dry mass at higher trophic levels because of these energy losses. The pyramid of biomass can occasionally appear inverted in aquatic ecosystems when the primary producers (phytoplankton) reproduce rapidly but are heavily grazed. Despite this, the pyramid of energy is always upright as it represents the flow of energy, which obeys the laws of thermodynamics.
由于存在能量损失，生物量金字塔通常显示较高营养级的干重减少。在水生生态系统中，当初级生产者（浮游植物）繁殖快但被大量摄食时，生物量金字塔偶尔会呈倒置。尽管如此，能量金字塔始终是正立的，因为它代表遵循热力学定律的能量流动。
8. Binomial Nomenclature and Classification Principles | 双名法与分类学原理
The binomial system of naming species was introduced by Carl Linnaeus. Each species is given a two-word Latin name: the first is the genus with an initial capital letter, and the second is the species in lower case. Both parts are typed in italics when printed or underlined when handwritten, e.g., Homo sapiens for modern humans. This universal system avoids confusion caused by common names and indicates evolutionary relationships.
双名制命名法由卡尔·林奈创立。每个物种获得一个由两个拉丁词组成的学名：第一个词为属名，首字母大写；第二个词为种加词，全小写。印刷时两词均用斜体
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