📚 Year 10 AQA Law: Core Knowledge Summary | AQA 法律 10 年级：核心知识点梳理
Welcome to this expanded bilingual revision guide on the core knowledge required for Year 10 AQA Law. It covers the nature of law, the English legal system, criminal law, tort and contract, with clear definitions, key cases and exam-focused tips that map directly onto the AQA specification.
欢迎阅读这份扩充版中英双语复习指南，内容覆盖 Year 10 AQA 法律所需的核心知识，包括法律的本质、英国法律体系、刑法、侵权法与合同法，并提供清晰定义、关键案例和紧扣 AQA 考纲的应试技巧。
1. The Nature of Law | 法律的本质
Law can be defined as a system of rules created and enforced by the state through institutions such as the police, the courts and the prison service. Legal rules are binding on all members of society, and their breach leads to formal sanctions, such as fines, imprisonment or community orders.
法律可被定义为由国家通过警察、法院和监狱等机构制定并强制执行的一套规则体系。法律规则对全体社会成员具有约束力，违反这些规则会导致正式制裁，例如罚款、监禁或社区服务令。
The functions of law include maintaining order, protecting rights and liberties, resolving disputes, punishing wrongdoing and reflecting shared moral standards. In AQA Law you must be able to explain these functions and apply them to realistic examples, not simply list them.
法律的功能包括维持秩序、保护权利与自由、解决纠纷、惩罚违法行为以及反映共同道德标准。在 AQA 法律考试中，你必须能够解释这些功能，并将其应用到真实情境中，而不是仅仅罗列出来。
A useful working definition for exam answers is: law is a body of rules recognised and enforced by the state, breach of which results in a legal sanction. This definition links three key ideas: rules, state enforcement and sanctions.
考试作答时一个实用的定义是：法律是一套由国家承认并强制执行的规则，违反它会产生法律制裁。这个定义把三个关键点联系起来：规则、国家执行和制裁。
2. Legal Rules vs Moral and Social Rules | 法律规则与道德、社会规则
Unlike moral or social rules, legal rules are compulsory and carry state-backed penalties. For example, telling a lie may be immoral but is only illegal in certain circumstances, such as perjury. This distinction shows that not all immoral acts are necessarily unlawful.
与道德或社会规则不同，法律规则是强制性的，并带有国家支持的惩罚。例如，撒谎可能不道德，但仅在特定情况下才违法，如做伪证。这一区别表明，并非所有不道德的行为都一定不合法。
Moral rules are enforced by conscience and social disapproval, while social rules are enforced by customs, manners and expectations. Legal rules, by contrast, are enforced by the state, which can impose punishment, require compensation or deprive a person of liberty.
道德规则依靠良心和社会谴责来维持，社会规则依靠习俗、礼仪和期望来维持。相比之下，法律规则由国家执行，国家可以施加惩罚、要求赔偿或剥夺个人自由。
Some conduct is both illegal and immoral, such as murder or theft. Other conduct may be illegal but not widely seen as immoral, such as parking on a double yellow line. There are also immoral acts that are not illegal, such as betraying a friend's trust.
有些行为既违法又不道德，如谋杀或盗窃。有些行为可能违法但通常不被视为不道德，如双黄线停车。还有一些不道德但并不违法的行为，如背叛朋友的信任。
Law also changes over time as society's values change. The abolition of the death penalty, the decriminalisation of suicide and the recognition of same-sex marriage all show that law and morality influence each other but are not identical.
法律也会随着社会价值观的变化而变化。废除死刑、自杀非罪化以及承认同性婚姻都表明，法律与道德相互影响，但二者并不等同。
3. Public Law and Private Law | 公法与私法
Law can be classified into public law and private law. Public law governs relationships between individuals and the state, and includes criminal law, constitutional law and administrative law. Private law deals with disputes between individuals, such as contract, tort, property and family law.
法律可分为公法与私法。公法调整个人与国家之间的关系，包括刑法、宪法和行政法。私法处理个人之间的纠纷，如合同法、侵权法、财产法和家事法。
Criminal law is usually treated as public law because a crime is regarded as an offence against society as a whole. The state prosecutes the defendant, and the case is cited as R v Defendant. The purpose is to punish and deter, and the standard of proof is beyond reasonable doubt.
刑法通常被视为公法，因为犯罪被认为是对整个社会的侵害。国家起诉被告，案件表述为 R v 被告。其目的是惩罚和威慑，证明标准是排除合理怀疑。
Civil law is private law. A claimant sues a defendant, and the case is cited as Claimant v Defendant. The purpose is usually to compensate the injured party, and the standard of proof is the balance of probabilities, meaning more likely than not.
民法属于私法。原告起诉被告，案件表述为原告 v 被告。其目的通常是赔偿受损一方，证明标准是盖然性权衡，即可能性超过一半。
| Public law | 公法 | Private law | 私法 |
| Involves the state | 涉及国家 | Involves private parties | 涉及私人主体 |
| Criminal, constitutional, administrative | 刑法、宪法、行政法 | Contract, tort, property, family | 合同、侵权、财产、家事 |
| Aim: punishment and deterrence | 目的：惩罚与威慑 | Aim: compensation and remedies | 目的：赔偿与救济 |
4. Sources of Law: Legislation and Parliament | 法律的渊源：立法与议会
The main source of law in England and Wales today is legislation. An Act of Parliament, also called a statute, is made by the House of Commons and the House of Lords and receives Royal Assent from the monarch. Acts are the highest form of law because of parliamentary sovereignty.
当今英格兰和威尔士法律的主要渊源是立法。议会法案也称制定法，由下议院和上议院制定，并由君主给予御准。由于议会主权原则，法案是最高形式的法律。
The stages of a Bill becoming an Act include first reading, second reading, committee stage, report stage, third reading, consideration in the other House and Royal Assent. A Green Paper and White Paper may precede the formal Bill.
法案成为法律的阶段包括一读、二读、委员会阶段、报告阶段、三读、另一院的审议以及御准。在正式法案之前，可能先有绿皮书和白皮书。
Delegated legislation is law made by another body under powers granted by an Act of Parliament, known as the parent Act. It includes statutory instruments, by-laws and Orders in Council. Its advantages are speed, flexibility and specialist knowledge; its disadvantages include limited scrutiny and possible excessive power.
授权立法是其他机构依据议会法案授予的权力制定的法律，该法案称为母法。它包括法定文书、地方法和枢密院令。其优点是迅速、灵活和专业；缺点包括审查有限和可能权力过大。
Other sources include common law, equity, retained EU law and the European Convention on Human Rights as applied through the Human Rights Act 1998. Equity developed to soften the harshness of common law and produced remedies such as the injunction and specific performance.
其他渊源包括普通法、衡平法、保留的欧盟法律以及通过《1998 年人权法》适用的《欧洲人权公约》。衡平法的发展是为了缓和普通法的严苛，并产生了禁令和实际履行等救济方式。
5. Case Law and Judicial Precedent | 判例法与司法先例
Judicial precedent means that decisions of higher courts bind lower courts in later similar cases. This is based on the doctrine of stare decisis, meaning 'let the decision stand'. The binding part of a judgment is the ratio decidendi, the legal reason for the decision.
司法先例意味着上级法院的判决对下级法院在后来的类似案件中具有约束力。这基于 stare decisis 原则，意为 '让判决维持不变'。判决中具有约束力的部分是 ratio decidendi，即判决的法律理由。
Obiter dicta, meaning 'things said by the way', are comments not essential to the decision. They are persuasive rather than binding, but they may influence future judges or later become the ratio in a new case.
Obiter dicta 意为 '附带意见'，是对判决并非必要的评论。它们具有说服力而非约束力，但可能影响未来的法官，或在后来成为新案件中的判决理由。
Courts may avoid precedent by distinguishing the facts, overruling an earlier decision, or reversing a decision in the same case on appeal. The Supreme Court can depart from its own previous decisions under the Practice Statement 1966 when it appears right to do so.
法院可以通过区分事实、推翻先例或在同一案件的上诉中撤销原判来避开先例。最高法院在认为适当时，可以根据 1966 年《实践声明》偏离其先前的判决。
Key cases to remember include Donoghue v Stevenson (1932), which established the neighbour principle in tort, and Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co (1893), which confirmed that a unilateral offer can be accepted by performance.
需要记住的关键案例包括 Donoghue v Stevenson (1932)，它在侵权法中确立了邻人原则；以及 Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co (1893)，它确认单方要约可以通过履行来接受。
6. The Court System in England and Wales | 英格兰和威尔士的法院体系
The court hierarchy is essential for understanding precedent and appeals. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the UK. Below it are the Court of Appeal (Civil Division and Criminal Division), the High Court, the Crown Court, the magistrates' court and the County Court, together with tribunals.
法院层级对于理解先例和上诉至关重要。最高法院是英国最高审级。其下是上诉法院（民事庭和刑事庭）、高等法院、刑事法院、治安法院和郡法院，以及各类裁判所。
Criminal cases usually begin in the magistrates' court. Summary offences are tried there by lay magistrates or a district judge. Indictable offences are sent to the Crown Court, where a judge presides and a jury decides guilt. Either-way offences may be tried in either court.
刑事案件通常从治安法院开始。简易罪由业余治安法官或地区法官审理。可公诉罪被移送刑事法院，由法官主持，陪审团裁定是否有罪。两可罪可在任一法院审理。
Civil cases usually begin in the County Court or the High Court. The County Court hears smaller claims, while the High Court has three divisions: King's Bench, Chancery and Family. Appeals go from the High Court to the Court of Appeal and then to the Supreme Court.
民事案件通常从郡法院或高等法院开始。郡法院审理较小额的索赔，而高等法院设有三个分庭：王座庭、衡平庭和家事庭。上诉从高等法院到上诉法院，再到最高法院。
Legal personnel include solicitors, barristers, legal executives, judges and magistrates. Juries are used mainly in the Crown Court and in some civil cases, such as defamation. Lay people bring community values and common sense to the legal system.
法律人员包括事务律师、出庭律师、法律行政人员、法官和治安法官。陪审团主要用于刑事法院和某些民事案件，如诽谤。非专业人士把社区价值观和常识带入法律体系。
7. Criminal Law: Actus Reus and Mens Rea | 刑法：犯罪行为与犯罪意图
The basic building blocks of criminal liability are actus reus and mens rea. Actus reus means the guilty act, which may be conduct, circumstances or consequences. Mens rea means the guilty mind, such as intention or recklessness.
刑事责任的基本构成要素是 actus reus 和 mens rea。Actus reus 指犯罪行为，可以是行为、情境或结果。Mens rea 指犯罪意图，例如故意或轻率。
For most offences, the prosecution must prove both actus reus and mens rea, and they must coincide. Strict liability offences are an exception because they do not require mens rea for at least one element of the actus reus.
对于大多数犯罪，控方必须同时证明 actus reus 和 mens rea，而且二者必须同时存在。严格责任犯罪是例外，因为它们至少对一个犯罪行为要素不要求犯罪意图。
An omission can only create liability where there is a legal duty to act. Duties may arise from statute, contract, relationship, assumption of responsibility or the creation of a dangerous situation. R v Pittwood (1902) is a classic example of contractual duty.
只有在存在作为的法律义务时，不作为才可能产生刑事责任。义务可能来自制定法、合同、关系、自愿承担责任或制造危险情境。R v Pittwood (1902) 是合同义务的经典例子。
Causation links the defendant's conduct to the result. Factual causation uses the 'but for' test. Legal causation requires the defendant's act to be a substantial and operating cause. The thin skull rule means you take your victim as you find them.
因果关系把被告的行为与结果联系起来。事实因果关系使用 '要不是' 检验。法律因果关系要求被告的行为是实质且起作用的原因。薄头骨规则意味着你必须接受受害人的原有状况。
The burden of proof lies on the prosecution, and the standard is beyond reasonable doubt. The presumption of innocence is protected by Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights and was famously stated in Woolmington v DPP (1935).
举证责任在控方，证明标准是排除合理怀疑。无罪推定受到《欧洲人权公约》第 6 条的保护，并在 Woolmington v DPP (1935) 中得到著名表述。
8. Offences Against the Person | 侵犯人身罪
Non-fatal offences against the person are graded by seriousness. Assault is causing the victim to apprehend immediate unlawful violence. Battery is the application of unlawful force. Assault occasioning actual bodily harm is charged under section 47 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861.
非致命侵犯人身罪按严重程度分级。袭击是使受害人 apprehension 到即将发生的非法暴力。殴打是施加非法武力。造成实际身体伤害的袭击依据《1861 年侵犯人身罪法》第 47 条起诉。
More serious offences are malicious wounding or causing grievous bodily harm under section 20, and wounding or causing grievous bodily harm with intent under section 18. Section 18 requires specific intent to cause grievous bodily harm, while section 20 requires malice, meaning intention or recklessness as to some harm.
更严重的犯罪是第 20 条的恶意伤害或造成严重身体伤害，以及第 18 条的故意伤害或造成严重身体伤害。第 18 条要求具有造成严重身体伤害的特定故意，而第 20 条要求恶意，即对某种伤害的故意或轻率。
Murder is the unlawful killing of a reasonable person in being under the King's Peace with malice aforethought. Malice aforethought means an intention to kill or an intention to cause grievous bodily harm. The mandatory sentence for murder is life imprisonment.
谋杀是在国王和平之下非法杀害一个在世的理性人，并具有恶意预谋。恶意预谋指杀人故意或造成严重身体伤害的故意。谋杀的强制刑是终身监禁。
Voluntary manslaughter arises where a murder charge is reduced by a special defence, such as loss of control under section 54 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 or diminished responsibility under section 2 of the Homicide Act 1957. Involuntary manslaughter includes gross negligence manslaughter and unlawful act manslaughter.
自愿过失杀人发生在谋杀指控因特殊抗辩而减轻时，例如《2009 年验尸官与司法法》第 54 条的控制丧失，或《1957 年杀人法》第 2 条的减轻责任。非自愿过失杀人包括严重过失杀人和非法行为杀人。
9. Defences in Criminal Law | 刑法中的抗辩理由
Defences may be complete, leading to acquittal, or partial, reducing liability. Complete defences include insanity, automatism, self-defence, duress and, in some offences, consent. Partial defences to murder include loss of control and diminished responsibility, which reduce murder to voluntary manslaughter.
抗辩可以是完整的，导致无罪释放；也可以是部分的，减轻责任。完整抗辩包括精神错乱、自动行为、自卫、胁迫，以及在某些犯罪中的同意。谋杀的 partial 抗辩包括控制丧失和减轻责任，它们把谋杀降为自愿过失杀人。
Insanity is governed by the M'Naghten Rules 1843. The defendant must prove a defect of reason caused by a disease of the mind, which means they did not know the nature and quality of the act or did not know it was wrong. The verdict is not guilty by reason of insanity.
精神错乱依据 1843 年 M'Naghten 规则。被告必须证明由精神疾病引起的理性缺陷，使其不知道行为的性质和质量，或不知道行为是错误的。裁决为因精神错乱而无罪。
Self-defence is available where the defendant used reasonable force in defence of themselves or another. Section 76 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 sets out the law. The force must be necessary and proportionate, although a householder may use disproportionate force in limited circumstances.
当被告为保护自己或他人而使用合理武力时，可以主张自卫。《2008 年刑事司法与移民法》第 76 条规定了该法律。武力必须是必要且相称的，但在有限情况下，住户可以使用不相称的武力。
Intoxication is rarely a complete defence. Voluntary intoxication may negate specific intent but not basic intent
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