📚 Year 10 AQA Economics: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | AQA 经济学公式定理速查手册
This handbook brings together all the essential formulas and key theorems you will encounter in Year 10 AQA Economics. Use it to revise concepts from how markets work to the measurement of macroeconomic performance, and test yourself on the calculations that matter most for your assessments.
本手册汇总了你在 Year 10 AQA 经济课程中会遇到的所有重要公式与核心定理，涵盖市场运作和宏观经济表现的衡量，帮助你集中复习对考试最重要的计算和概念。
1. Scarcity & Opportunity Cost | 稀缺性与机会成本
The fundamental economic problem is that resources are finite whereas human wants are infinite, forcing economic agents to make choices. Every choice carries an opportunity cost – the value of the next best alternative forgone.
基本经济问题在于资源有限而人类欲望无限，迫使经济主体做出选择。每一次选择都存在机会成本——即所放弃的次优选择的价值。
Opportunity Cost = Value of the next best alternative given up
机会成本 = 所放弃的次优选项的价值
This theorem reminds us that cost is not merely monetary; it is about lost possibilities. Rational agents compare opportunity costs to allocate resources efficiently.
该定理提醒我们，成本不仅是货币层面的，更是关于失去的可能性。理性主体通过比较机会成本，来有效配置资源。
2. Production Possibility Frontier (PPF) | 生产可能性边界
A PPF shows the maximum possible output combinations of two goods an economy can produce when all resources are used efficiently. Points on the curve represent full employment; points inside the curve indicate idle resources.
生产可能性边界表示一个经济体在充分利用所有资源时所能生产的两种商品的最大可能组合。曲线上的点代表充分就业，曲线内部的点表示资源闲置。
Marginal Rate of Transformation (MRT) = ΔGood Y ÷ ΔGood X
边际转换率 (MRT) = 商品Y的变化量 ÷ 商品X的变化量
The slope of the PPF measures the opportunity cost of producing additional units of one good. A concave PPF reflects increasing opportunity cost, implying resources are not equally suited to all types of production.
PPF 的斜率衡量多生产一单位某商品的机会成本。外凸的 PPF 反映机会成本递增，意味着资源并非同等适用于所有生产类型。
3. Demand & the Law of Demand | 需求与需求法则
The Law of Demand states that, ceteris paribus, price and quantity demanded are inversely related. Demand can be expressed through a demand schedule or a linear demand function.
需求法则指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格与需求量存在反向关系。需求可以通过需求表或线性需求函数来表达。
Qd = a − bP
需求量 Qd = a − bP （a 为价格为零时的最大需求量，b 为斜率）
Factors such as income, tastes and prices of related goods shift the entire demand curve. A movement along the curve is caused solely by a change in the good’s own price.
收入、偏好和相关商品价格等因素会使整条需求曲线移动。沿着曲线的移动纯粹由该商品自身价格的变化引起。
4. Supply & the Law of Supply | 供给与供给法则
The Law of Supply states that, ceteris paribus, price and quantity supplied are directly related – producers are willing to supply more at higher prices because profit potential rises.
供给法则指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格与供给量存在正向关系——更高的价格让生产者愿意提供更多产量，因为潜在利润增加了。
Qs = c + dP
供给量 Qs = c + dP （c 为价格为零时的基础供给量，d 为斜率）
Shifts in supply result from changes in costs of production, technology, taxes, subsidies and the number of sellers. A supply curve shift is different from a movement along the supply curve.
生产成本、技术、税收、补贴和卖方数量的变化会引起供给曲线的平移。供给曲线的平移不同于沿着供给曲线的移动。
5. Market Equilibrium & the Price Mechanism | 市场均衡与价格机制
Market equilibrium occurs where the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied at a given price. There is no inherent tendency for change at this point.
市场均衡发生在给定价格下需求量等于供给量的点。在该点上，不存在内在的变化趋势。
Qd = Qs
Qd = Qs （均衡条件）
Excess demand pushes prices up, signalling firms to produce more; excess supply drives prices down, signalling firms to reduce output. This signalling and incentive function of prices is the essence of the price mechanism.
超额需求推动价格上涨，向企业发出增产信号；超额供给迫使价格下跌，向企业发出减产信号。价格的这种信号与激励功能是价格机制的核心。
6. Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) | 需求价格弹性
PED measures how responsive the quantity demanded of a good is to a change in its own price. It is a pure number, usually taken in absolute value.
需求价格弹性衡量一种商品的需求量对其自身价格变化的敏感程度。它是一个纯数字，通常取绝对值。
PED = (%ΔQd) ÷ (%ΔP)
PED = (需求量的变化百分比) ÷ (价格的变化百分比)
1, demand is unit elastic. The value of PED determines whether total revenue rises or falls when price changes.
若 PED > 1，需求富有弹性；PED < 1，需求缺乏弹性；PED = 1，需求具有单位弹性。PED 的数值决定了当价格变化时总收益是增加还是减少。
%Δ = (New value − Original value) ÷ Original value × 100
百分比变化 = (新值 − 原值) ÷ 原值 × 100
Using the midpoint formula can give a more consistent elasticity measure when there are large jumps. For Year 10, the standard percentage-change method is sufficient.
当数据变动较大时，采用中点公式可以得到更一致的弹性度量。对于 Year 10，标准的百分比变化法已足够。
7. Price Elasticity of Supply (PES) | 供给价格弹性
PES measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in the good’s own price. It tends to be positive because the supply relationship is direct.
供给价格弹性衡量供给量对该商品自身价格变化的敏感程度。它通常为正，因为供给关系是正向的。
PES = (%ΔQs) ÷ (%ΔP)
PES = (供给量的变化百分比) ÷ (价格的变化百分比)
Supply is more elastic when firms have spare capacity, can store inventory easily, or when the production process is relatively fast. Time is a crucial determinant of PES.
当企业有闲置产能、容易储存库存，或生产过程相对较短时，供给更富有弹性。时间是决定 PES 的关键因素。
8. Income Elasticity & Cross Elasticity of Demand | 需求收入弹性与需求交叉弹性
Income elasticity of demand (YED) shows how quantity demanded changes as consumer income changes. It helps classify goods as normal or inferior.
需求收入弹性 (YED) 显示需求量如何随消费者收入变化而变化，它有助于将商品分为正常品和劣等品。
YED = (%ΔQd) ÷ (%ΔY)
YED = (需求量的变化百分比) ÷ (收入的变化百分比)
Cross elasticity of demand (XED) measures the sensitivity of demand for one good to a price change in another good. It identifies complements and substitutes.
需求交叉弹性 (XED) 衡量一种商品的需求对另一种商品价格变化的敏感度，用以识别互补品和替代品。
XED = (%ΔQd of good A) ÷ (%ΔP of good B)
XED = (商品A需求量的变化百分比) ÷ (商品B价格的变化百分比)
Positive XED signals substitute goods; negative XED signals complementary goods. Near-zero XED suggests no strong relationship.
正的 XED 表明替代品，负的 XED 表明互补品，接近零的 XED 表示两者之间没有明显关联。
9. Costs & Revenue | 成本与收益
Firms face fixed and variable costs. Understanding how these combine into total and average costs is essential for profit analysis.
企业面临固定成本和可变成本。理解它们如何构成总成本和平均成本，对于利润分析至关重要。
Total Cost (TC) = Total Fixed Cost (TFC) + Total Variable Cost (TVC)
总成本 (TC) = 总固定成本 (TFC) + 总可变成本 (TVC)
Average Cost (AC) = TC ÷ Q
平均成本 (AC) = 总成本 ÷ 产量 Q
Total revenue is the income generated from selling a given quantity. Average revenue equals price when all units are sold at the same price.
总收益是销售一定数量产品所产生的收入。当所有单位以相同价格出售时，平均收益等于价格。
Total Revenue (TR) = Price (P) × Quantity (Q)
总收益 (TR) = 价格 P × 数量 Q
Average Revenue (AR) = TR ÷ Q = P
平均收益 (AR) = 总收益 ÷ 数量 = 价格
Profit is maximised where the difference between total revenue and total cost is greatest. In Year 10 calculations, simply subtract total cost from total revenue.
当总收益与总成本之差最大时，利润实现最大化。在 Year 10 的计算中，直接用总收益减去总成本即可。
Profit = TR − TC
利润 = 总收益 − 总成本
10. Market Failure & Externalities | 市场失灵与外部性
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. A key cause is the existence of externalities – costs or benefits that affect third parties not involved in a transaction.
市场失灵是指自由市场无法有效配置资源。一个关键原因是存在外部性——影响未参与交易的第三方的成本或收益。
Social Cost = Private Cost + External Cost
社会成本 = 私人成本 + 外部成本
Social Benefit = Private Benefit + External Benefit
社会收益 = 私人收益 + 外部收益
When social cost exceeds social benefit, negative externalities cause overproduction. When social benefit exceeds private benefit, positive externalities lead to underproduction. These formulas help quantify the divergence.
当社会成本大于社会收益时，负外部性导致过度生产；当社会收益大于私人收益时，正外部性导致生产不足。这些公式有助于量化这种背离。
11. Macroeconomic Indicators | 宏观经济指标
Governments track inflation, unemployment and economic growth to judge economic performance. Each relies on a clear formula.
政府通过追踪通货膨胀、失业和经济增长来判断经济表现。每个指标都依赖于明确的公式。
Inflation Rate = [(CPIcurrent − CPIprevious) ÷ CPIprevious] × 100
通货膨胀率 = [(当期CPI − 上期CPI) ÷ 上期CPI] × 100
Unemployment Rate = (Number of Unemployed ÷ Labour Force) × 100
失业率 = (失业人数 ÷ 劳动力总数) × 100
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) represents the total value of output produced within a country in a year. While GDP itself is measured in value, growth rates use a percentage change formula similar to inflation.
国内生产总值 (GDP) 表示一国在一年内生产的总产出价值。虽然 GDP 以价值来衡量，但其增长率使用与通货膨胀类似的百分比变化公式。
12. Economic Growth & Policy Quick Tools | 经济增长与政策速查工具
Economic growth is typically measured by the percentage change in real GDP from one period to the next. This simple calculation underpins policy targets.
经济增长通常通过从一个时期到下一个时期的实际 GDP 的百分比变化来衡量。这个简单的计算为政策目标奠定了基础。
Real GDP Growth Rate = [(Real GDPt − Real GDPt−1) ÷ Real GDPt−1] × 100
实际 GDP 增长率 = [(当期实际GDP − 上期实际GDP) ÷ 上期实际GDP] × 100
Fiscal policy uses government spending and taxation to influence aggregate demand. A simple tax revenue formula might appear:
财政政策利用政府支出与税收来影响总需求。可能会出现一个简洁的税收收入公式：
Tax Revenue = Tax Rate × Tax Base
税收收入 = 税率 × 税基
Monetary policy relies on central bank interest rates. While Year 10 does not require complex multiplier calculations, remembering the base relationship between interest rates and borrowing helps explain policy transmission.
货币政策依赖中央银行的利率。虽然 Year 10 不要求复杂的乘数计算，但记住利率与借贷之间的基本关系有助于解释政策传导机制。
Published by TutorHao | Economics Revision Series | aleveler.com
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