📚 Year 10 AQA Biology Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | 公式定理速查手册
This concise handbook gathers all the essential formulas, equations and key principles you need to master Year 10 AQA Biology. From magnification to monohybrid crosses, every rule is presented with clear definitions and quick examples to boost your revision.
这本简明手册汇集了 Year 10 AQA 生物学所有必备公式、方程式和核心原理。从放大倍数的计算到单基因杂交规律，每一条定理都配有清晰的定义和快速示例，助你高效复习。
1. Magnification & Microscopy | 显微镜与放大倍数
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小
The triangle method helps you rearrange the formula: place 'Image size' on top, 'Magnification' and 'Actual size' in the bottom two segments. Cover the quantity you want to find – if it's on top, divide; if side by side, multiply.
三角形记忆法可以帮助你变形公式：将 '图像大小' 放在顶部，'放大倍数' 和 '实际大小' 放在底部两个格。遮住你想求的量——如果在顶部，则用除法；如果左右并列，则用乘法。
Units must be consistent: if image size is measured in mm and actual size in µm, convert everything to the same unit before calculating. 1 mm = 1000 µm.
单位必须统一：如果图像大小以 mm 为单位，而实际大小以 µm 为单位，计算前要将所有数值换算为相同单位。1 mm = 1000 µm。
I = A × M where I = image size, A = actual size, M = magnification
I = A × M 其中 I = 图像大小, A = 实际大小, M = 放大倍数
2. Enzymes & Digestion | 酶与消化
Lock and Key Theory: each enzyme has an active site that is complementary to its specific substrate. The substrate fits into the active site like a key in a lock, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. The reaction occurs and products are released, leaving the enzyme unchanged.
锁钥学说：每种酶都有一个活性中心，与特定底物形状互补。底物像钥匙插入锁孔一样嵌入活性中心，形成酶-底物复合物。反应发生，产物释放，酶本身保持不变。
Effect of temperature: as temperature rises, enzyme activity increases until an optimum is reached (around 37°C for human enzymes). Beyond the optimum, the enzyme denatures and the active site loses its shape, so activity falls sharply.
温度影响：温度升高时，酶活性增强，直至达到最适温度（人体酶约37°C）。超过最适温度后，酶变性，活性中心形状改变，活性急剧下降。
Effect of pH: each enzyme works best at a specific pH. For example, pepsin in the stomach works best at pH 2, while amylase in the mouth works best near neutral pH. Extreme pH values denature the enzyme.
pH 影响：每种酶都有最适 pH。例如，胃蛋白酶最适 pH 为 2，而口腔淀粉酶最适 pH 接近中性。极端的 pH 会使酶变性。
Rate calculation: you can measure enzyme activity as the rate of product formation, e.g., cm³ of gas produced per minute.
Rate = Quantity of product ÷ Time
速率计算：你可以通过产物生成的速率来测定酶活性，例如每分钟产生的气体体积（cm³）。
速率 = 产物生成量 ÷ 时间
3. Photosynthesis | 光合作用
Word equation: Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
文字方程式：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气
Symbol equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
符号方程式：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction that takes place in the chloroplasts using chlorophyll. Light energy is absorbed and converted into chemical energy stored in glucose.
光合作用是一种在叶绿体中利用叶绿素进行的吸热反应。光能被吸收并转化为化学能，储存在葡萄糖中。
Factors affecting the rate: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. At any point, the rate is limited by the factor that is in shortest supply – this is called the limiting factor.
影响速率的因素：光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。在任何时刻，光合作用速率受限于供应最短缺的那个因素，这被称为 限制因子。
For measuring rate, you can follow oxygen production in pondweed. Rate = Number of bubbles ÷ Time or Rate = Volume of O₂ ÷ Time.
你可以通过测量水草产生的氧气来观测速率。速率 = 气泡数 ÷ 时间 或 速率 = 氧气体积 ÷ 时间。
4. Aerobic & Anaerobic Respiration | 需氧与厌氧呼吸
Aerobic respiration (word): Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)
需氧呼吸（文字）：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水 + 能量（ATP）
Aerobic symbol equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O (+ energy)
需氧呼吸符号方程式：C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O（+ 能量）
Anaerobic respiration in animals: Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy (ATP) – this occurs during vigorous exercise when oxygen supply is insufficient.
动物厌氧呼吸：葡萄糖 → 乳酸 + 能量（ATP）—— 在剧烈运动氧气供应不足时发生。
Anaerobic respiration in plants and yeast: Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy (ATP). This is also called fermentation.
植物与酵母的厌氧呼吸：葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + 二氧化碳 + 能量（ATP）。这也称为发酵。
Aerobic respiration yields far more ATP per glucose molecule than anaerobic respiration. Oxygen debt is the extra oxygen needed to break down lactic acid after exercise.
每分子葡萄糖，需氧呼吸产生的 ATP 远多于厌氧呼吸。氧债是指运动后分解乳酸所需的额外氧气。
5. Diffusion, Osmosis & Active Transport | 扩散、渗透与主动运输
Diffusion: net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down the concentration gradient. It is passive and requires no energy.
扩散：粒子沿浓度梯度从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动。属于被动过程，不需能量。
Osmosis: the net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution).
渗透：水分子通过半透膜从水势较高（稀溶液）一侧向水势较低（浓溶液）一侧的净移动。
Active transport: the movement of substances against the concentration gradient (low to high) across a cell membrane, using energy from ATP and carrier proteins.
主动运输：物质逆浓度梯度（从低浓度到高浓度）穿过细胞膜的过程，需要 ATP 提供能量和载体蛋白参与。
A useful relationship: Rate of diffusion ∝ (Surface area × Concentration difference) ÷ Thickness of membrane. Increasing surface area, steeper gradient, or thinner membrane all raise the rate.
一个有用的关系：扩散速率 ∝ （表面积 × 浓度差）÷ 膜厚度。增大表面积、加大浓度差，或减小膜厚度都可以提高扩散速率。
6. Food Chains & Energy Transfer | 食物链与能量传递
In a food chain, arrows represent the direction of energy flow from one trophic level to the next. Only about 10% of the energy is transferred to the next level; the rest is lost through heat, respiration, movement and undigested material.
在食物链中，箭头代表能量从一个营养级流向下一个营养级的方向。只有大约 10% 的能量传递到下一级；其余能量通过热量、呼吸、运动以及未消化的物质散失。
Energy transfer efficiency (%) = (Energy available to the next level ÷ Energy available to the previous level) × 100
能量传递效率（%）= （传递给上一级的能量 ÷ 上一级可利用的能量）× 100
This low efficiency explains why most food chains are short – there is rarely enough energy to support more than 4 or 5 trophic levels.
这种低效率解释了为什么大多数食物链很短——很少能有足够的能量支持超过 4 或 5 个营养级。
Pyramids of energy are always upright because energy is lost at each transfer. The area of each bar is proportional to the energy content of that trophic level.
能量金字塔总是正立的，因为每一级传递都会损失能量。每块条形图的面积与该营养级的能量含量成正比。
7. Pyramids of Biomass & Efficiency | 生物量金字塔与两传效率
Biomass is the total dry mass of living material in an organism or trophic level. Pyramids of biomass can sometimes be inverted (e.g., in aquatic ecosystems where phytoplankton reproduce rapidly), but they usually become smaller towards the top.
生物量是指生物体或某一营养级中活体的总干重。生物量金字塔有时可能出现倒置（例如浮游植物繁殖迅速的水生生态系统），但通常向上逐级缩小。
Efficiency of biomass transfer (%) = (Biomass transferred to next level ÷ Biomass available at previous level) × 100
生物量传递效率（%）= （传递到下一级的生物量 ÷ 上一级可利用的生物量）× 100
Improving efficiency in farming can be achieved by reducing respiratory losses (e.g., limiting animal movement, keeping them warm) and using high-yield crops.
在农业中，通过减少呼吸消耗（如限制动物活动、保温）并使用高产品种，可以提高生物量传递效率。
The ratio of biomass lost as heat/respiration to biomass incorporated into body tissue is important for calculating the overall productivity of an ecosystem.
以热量或呼吸形式散失的生物量与用于构建身体组织的生物量之比，对计算生态系统的总生产力十分重要。
8. Monohybrid Cross & Genetic Ratios | 单基因杂交与遗传比率
Punnett squares wo heterozygous parents (Bb × Bb), where B = dominant brown eyes, b = recessive blue eyes:
庞氏方格用于预测子代的基因型和表现型。以两个杂合亲本（Bb × Bb）为例，设 B 为显性棕眼，b 为隐性蓝眼：
| B | b | |
|---|---|---|
| B | BB | Bb |
| b | Bb | bb |
Phenotypic ratio: 3 dominant : 1 recessive (Brown : Blue = 3 : 1)
表现型比率：3 显性 : 1 隐性（棕眼 : 蓝眼 = 3 : 1）
Genotypic ratio: 1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb. This means the homozygous dominant, heterozygous and homozygous recessive appear in that proportion.
基因型比率：1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb。即纯合显性、杂合和纯合隐性按此比例出现。
Probability of a recessive phenotype in such a cross is ¼ or 25%. For sex-linked inheritance or co-dominance, the ratios differ but the Punnett method remains the same.
此类杂交中，隐性表现型出现的概率为 ¼ 或 25%。对于伴性遗传或共显性，比率会有所不同，但庞氏方格的方法不变。
9. Evolution & Natural Selection | 进化与自然选择
Natural selection can be summarised by the acronym VISTA: Variation exists within a population; Inheritance of traits; Struggle for survival (overproduction of offspring); Those with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more; Allele frequencies change over generations.
自然选择可用缩写 VISTA 概括：种群内存在 变异（Variation）；性状可 遗传（Inheritance）；生存 斗争（Struggle for survival，繁殖过度）；拥有有利性状的个体更易 存活繁殖（Those with advantageous traits）；随时间推移 等位基因频率改变（Allele frequencies change）。
The theory of evolution by natural selection was proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. The key evidence includes fossil records, antibiotic resistance in bacteria and the distribution of species on islands.
通过自然选择的 进化论 由达尔文和华莱士提出。关键证据包括化石记录、细菌的抗生素耐药性以及岛屿上物种的分布。
Rates of evolution can be accelerated by isolation and changes in selection pressures. Allele frequency change can be observed in real time in organisms with short generation times, such as bacteria.
隔离和选择压力的变化会加快进化速率。在世代周期短的生物（如细菌）中，可以实时观察到等位基因频率的改变。
Hardy-Weinberg principle (extension): o alleles p and q: p² + 2pq + q² = 1. (This is usually covered in higher-tier extensions.)
哈代-温伯格定律（拓展）：如果不存在进化，等位基因频率会代代保持恒定。对于具有两个等位基因 p 和 q 的基因：p² + 2pq + q² = 1。（这通常在 Higher Tier 拓展中出现。）
10. The Carbon & Water Cycles | 碳循环与水循环
The carbon cycle involves four key processes: photosynthesis (takes in CO₂), respiration (releases CO₂), combustion (burning fossil fuels releases CO₂), and decomposition (microorganisms break down dead matter, releasing CO₂). The formula linking these is essentially the balance of photosynthesis and respiration.
碳循环包含四个关键过程：光合作用（吸收 CO₂）、呼吸作用（释放 CO₂）、燃烧（燃烧化石燃料释放 CO₂）和 分解作用（微生物分解死亡有机质，释放 CO₂）。联系这些过程的公式本质上是光合作用与呼吸作用的平衡。
Carbon is also locked away in fossil fuels and carbonate rocks. Over geological time, the cycle can take millions of years. Human activities, especially burning fossil fuels, have disrupted the balance, raising atmospheric CO₂ levels.
碳还被锁存在化石燃料和碳酸盐岩石中。在地质时间尺度上，循环可能长达数百万年。人类活动，特别是燃烧化石燃料，打破了平衡，导致大气 CO₂ 浓度上升。
The water cycle is driven by solar energy: evaporation (liquid to gas), transpiration (from plants), condensation (cloud formation) and precipitation (rain, snow). There is no single equation, but you can link the process to the water potential gradient in plants for transpiration.
水循环由太阳能驱动：蒸发（液态变气态）、蒸腾作用（植物散发）、凝结（云的形成）和 降水（雨雪）。虽然没有单一方程式，但你可以将蒸腾作用与植物体内的水势梯度联系起来。
11. Decay & Decomposition Rate | 腐败与分解速率
The rate of decay can be measured as the change in mass of organic material over time under controlled conditions. Factors that increase decay rate: warmth, moisture and oxygen availability (for aerobic decomposers).
分解速率可以通过控制条件下有机物质随时间变化的质量来测量。提高分解速率的因素：温暖、潮湿和氧气供应（对于需氧分解者）。
Rate of decay = Mass lost ÷ Time. In experiments, you might measure the volume of CO₂ released by decomposing material as an indicator of rate.
分解速率 = 损失的质量 ÷ 时间。在实验中，你可以通过测量分解质释放的 CO₂ 体积来指示分解速率。
Compost making applies these principles by maintaining optimal warmth, moisture and aeration to maximise the breakdown of organic waste into nutrient-rich fertiliser.
堆肥制作正是应用这些原理，通过保持最佳温度、湿度和通风，最大限度地分解有机废弃物，形成富含养分的肥料。
If temperature or pH is too extreme, the enzymes of decomposers denature and decay slows or stops.
如果温度或 pH 过于极端，分解者的酶会变性，分解速度减慢甚至停止。
12. Sampling & Population Size Estimation | 取样与种群数量估算
To estimate population size, ecologists use quadrats and transects. For motile organisms, the capture-mark-recapture method is applied:
为估算种群数量，生态学家使用 样方 和 样线。对于能动的生物，采用 标记-重捕法：
umber in first sample × Number in second sample) ÷ Number of marked individuals recaptured
种群估计值 = （第一次样本数 × 第二次样本数）÷ 重捕到的标记个体数
This formula assumes that marked individuals mix evenly with the rest of the population, no significant births/deaths/migration occur between samples, and marking does not affect survival.
这一公式假设标记个体与其他个体均匀混合，两次取样之间没有明显的出生、死亡或迁移，且标记不会影响存活。
For plants and slow-moving animals, quadrat sampling is used: Mean number per quadrat × Number of quadrats that would cover the area gives a population estimate.
对于植物和移动缓慢的动物，使用样方取样：每样方平均个数 × 覆盖整个区域的样方数 可以估算种群大小。
Biodiversity can be measured using indices like Simpson's Diversity Index, but at Year 10 level, qualitative descriptions of abundance and distribution are the main focus.
生物多样性可以用辛普森多样性指数等工具测量，但在 Year 10 阶段，主要侧重于对丰度和分布的定性描述。
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