📚 Year 10 WJEC Philosophy: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | Year 10 WJEC 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the precise vocabulary of philosophy is the first step towards building strong arguments and achieving top marks in your WJEC exam. This guide groups essential Year 10 terms into memorable pairs and categories, giving you clear definitions, examples, and memory hooks to lock the concepts in place.
掌握哲学中的精确词汇，是构建有力论证并在 WJEC 考试中取得高分的首要步骤。本指南将 Year 10 的核心术语按容易记忆的组合和类别编排，提供清晰的定义、示例和记忆技巧，帮助你牢牢锁定这些概念。
1. A Priori vs A Posteriori | 先验与后验
'A priori' knowledge is gained independently of sense experience, using reason alone. For example, the statement 'All bachelors are unmarried' is known a priori because we just need to understand the words to see it is true.
“先验”知识是独立于感官经验、仅仅通过理性获得的知识。例如，“所有单身汉都是未婚的”这个陈述是先验的，因为我们只需理解词语的含义就能知道其为真。
'A posteriori' knowledge depends entirely on sense experience or empirical evidence. The claim 'The cat is on the mat' can only be verified by looking, touching, or otherwise observing the world.
“后验”知识完全依赖于感官经验或实证。像“猫在垫子上”这样的断言，只有通过看、触摸或以其他方式观察世界才能得到验证。
Memory tip: Think 'prior' = reason; 'posterior' = experience.
记忆技巧：把“prior”中的 r 想成 reason（理性）；“posterior”中的 e 想成 experience（经验）。
2. Deductive vs Inductive Arguments | 演绎与归纳论证
A deductive argument aims to provide logically conclusive support for its conclusion. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. For example: 'All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.'
演绎论证旨在为其结论提供逻辑上决定性的支持。如果前提为真，结论必然为真。例如：“所有人都终有一死；苏格拉底是人；因此，苏格拉底终有一死。”
An inductive argument aims to provide probable support. The premises make the conclusion likely, but not guaranteed. For instance: 'The sun has risen every morning in recorded history; therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.'
归纳论证旨在提供概然性的支持。前提使结论很可能成立，但并不保证。例如：“有记载以来，太阳每天早晨都升起；因此，明天太阳也会升起。”
Memory tip: Deduction decides; induction implies probability.
记忆技巧：演绎（deduction）是决定性的（decides）；归纳（induction）只是暗示（implies）可能性。
3. Validity and Soundness (in Deductive Arguments) | 有效性与可靠性（在演绎论证中）
Validity is about logical structure. An argument is valid if, assuming the premises are true, the conclusion would follow necessarily. It does not matter if the premises are actually false. Example: 'All birds can fly; a penguin is a bird; therefore, a penguin can fly' is valid in form, even though a premise is false.
有效性关乎逻辑结构。如果一个论证在假设前提为真的情况下，结论必然能从前提中得出，那么它就是有效的，而与前提在现实中是否为假无关。例如：“所有鸟都会飞；企鹅是鸟；因此企鹅会飞”在形式上有效，尽管其中一个前提为假。
Soundness is validity plus true premises. A sound argument is one that is valid and all its premises are actually true. The Socrates example in Section 2 is both valid and sound.
可靠性等于有效性加上真实的前提。一个可靠的论证，是既有效、且所有前提均为真的论证。第 2 节中苏格拉底的例子就既有效又可靠。
Memory tip: Valid = the logic works; Sound = the logic works and the facts are right.
记忆技巧：有效 = 逻辑通顺；可靠 = 逻辑通顺而且事实正确。
4. Necessary vs Contingent Truths | 必然真理与偶然真理
cessary truth is a statement that could not possibly be false, no matter how the world is. '2 + 2 = 4' and 'A triangle has three sides' are necessary truths; they hold in every possible world.
必然真理是指无论世界如何变化，都不可能为假的陈述。“2 + 2 = 4”和“三角形有三条边”就是必然真理，它们在一切可能世界都成立。
A contingent truth is a statement that happens to be true in the actual world but could have been false. 'London is the capital of the UK' is contingent because it is easy to imagine a different history where another city became the capital.
偶然真理是指在实际世界中恰好为真，但本可能为假的陈述。“伦敦是英国的首都”是偶然真理，因为我们很容易想象一段不同的历史，使另一座城市成为首都。
Memory tip: Necessary truths cannot be avoided; contingent truths depend on how things happened to go.
记忆技巧：必然真理无法被避免；偶然真理取决于事情恰好如何发生。
5. Theism, Atheism, Agnosticism | 有神论、无神论、不可知论
Theism is the belief in at least one god or deity who created and sustains the universe. Monotheism (e.g., Christianity, Islam) holds that there is exactly one God; polytheism (e.g., Hinduism, ancient Greek religion) holds that there are many gods.
有神论是相信至少存在一位创造并维持宇宙的神祇。一神论（如基督教、伊斯兰教）主张只有一位神；多神论（如印度教、古希腊宗教）主张存在多位神。
Atheism is the absence of belief in any god or gods. A 'strong atheist' asserts that no gods exist; a 'weak atheist' simply lacks a belief in gods, without necessarily claiming they do not exist.
无神论是不相信任何神祇存在的立场。“强无神论者”断言没有神存在；“弱无神论者”只是缺乏对神的信仰，而不一定宣称神不存在。
Agnosticism is the view that it is impossible to know whether or not God exists. An agnostic may lean towards theism or atheism but insists that human reason cannot reach a definitive conclusion.
不可知论认为，我们不可能知道神是否存在。一个不可知论者可能倾向于有神论或无神论，但坚持认为人类理性无法得出确定的结论。
6. Divine Attributes: Omnipotence, Omniscience, Omnibenevolence | 神圣属性：全能、全知、全善
Omnipotence literally means 'all-powerful'. In philosophy of religion, it usually refers to the ability to do anything that is logically possible. The paradox 'Can God create a stone so heavy He cannot lift it?' tests whether omnipotence includes logically impossible acts.
“全能”的字面意思是“无所不能”。在宗教哲学中，它通常指能做一切逻辑上可能之事的能力。“上帝能否创造一块自己搬不动的石头？”这一悖论，就是在检验全能是否包含逻辑上不可能的行为。
Omniscience means 'all-knowing'. An omniscient being knows all true propositions — past, present, and future — including every free choice humans will make. This immediately raises questions about free will.
“全知”意味着知晓一切。一个全知的存在知道所有真命题——无论是过去、现在还是未来——包括人类将要作出的每一个自由选择。这立刻引发了关于自由意志的问题。
Omnibenevolence means 'all-loving' or 'perfectly good'. An omnibenevolent God would always will the good and never cause or permit evil without a morally sufficient reason. The Problem of Evil challenges how an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent God can coexist with suffering.
“全善”意味着“完全的爱”或“绝对的善”。一位全善的上帝，意愿总是善的，除非有道德上充分的理由，否则绝不会造成或容许恶。恶的问题正是挑战全能、全知、全善的上帝如何能与世间苦难共存。
7. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free will is the ability to choose and act otherwise than one did. A person with free will could have chosen a different path; their actions are not completely determined by prior causes, fate, or a divine plan.
自由意志是一种本可以选择并采取不同行动的能力。一个拥有自由意志的人本可以选择不同的道路；其行动并非完全由先前的原因、命运或神圣计划所决定。
Determinism is the thesis that every event, including human choices, is the inevitable result of preceding causes. If determinism is true, in a given situation there is only one possible future, and free will is an illusion.
决定论是这样一个论题：每一个事件，包括人的选择，都是先前原因的必然结果。如果决定论为真，那么在给定的情境下，未来只有一种可能，而自由意志只是幻觉。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) tries to reconcile the two by arguing that free will is compatible with determinism if 'free' is understood as acting on one's own desires without external coercion.
相容论（软决定论）试图调和二者，它主张如果“自由”被理解为在没有外部强制的情况下按照自己的欲望行事，那么自由意志就与决定论相容。
8. Moral Absolutism vs Moral Relativism | 道德绝对主义与道德相对主义
Moral absolutism holds that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of context, culture, or consequences. For example, an absolutist might claim that lying is always morally wrong, no matter the situation.
道德绝对主义认为，某些行为本身就是对或错的，与情境、文化或后果无关。例如，一位绝对主义者可能主张说谎在道德上永远是错的，无论出于什么情况。
Moral relativism claims that moral truths depend on culture, society, or individual perspective. Descriptive relativism simply observes that different societies do have different moral codes; normative relativism goes further and says there is no universal standard by which to judge them.
道德相对主义声称，道德真理取决于文化、社会或个人视角。描述性相对主义只是观察到不同社会确实有不同道德规范；规范性相对主义则更进一步，认为不存在可以评价这些规范的普遍标准。
Memory tip: Absolutism says 'always and everywhere'; relativism says 'it depends'.
记忆技巧：绝对主义说“无论何时何地”；相对主义说“看情况”。
9. Utilitarianism and Deontology | 功利主义与义务论
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that judges actions by their outcomes. The right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness (or utility) for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham's hedonic calculus and John Stuart Mill's higher and lower pleasures are key versions.
功利主义是一种后果论的伦理理论，它根据行为的结果来判断行为。正当的行为，就是能为最大多数人带来最大幸福（或功利）的行为。杰里米·边沁的快乐计算法和约翰·斯图亚特·密尔的高低等快乐是其中的关键版本。
Deontology (from Greek deon, duty) judges actions by whether they follow moral rules or duties, regardless of consequences. For Immanuel Kant, the categorical imperative commands us to act only according to maxims we could will as universal laws, and to treat humanity never merely as a means but always as an end.
义务论（源于希腊词deon，义务）根据行为是否遵循道德规则或义务来评判行为，而不论后果如何。对伊曼努尔·康德而言，绝对命令要求我们只依照那些能够成为普遍法则的准则去行动，并且总是将人性当作目的，而绝不仅仅当作手段。
Memory tip: Utilitarianism asks 'What happens?'; deontology asks 'Why did you do it?'
记忆技巧：功利主义问“会发生什么？”；义务论问“你为何这样做？”。
10. Verification and Falsification | 证实与证伪
The verification principle, promoted by logical positivists, states that a statement is meaningful only if it can be verified by sense experience or is true by definition. 'God exists' would be meaningless under this strict criterion because it cannot be empirically tested.
证实原则由逻辑实证主义者提出，它主张一个陈述只有当它能被感官经验所证实、或是根据定义为真时，才是有意义的。在这一严格标准下，“上帝存在”这个陈述是无意义的，因为它无法通过经验检验。
Falsification, associated with Karl Popper, argues that for a statement to be scientific, it must be capable of being proven false. A claim that can accommodate any observation without ever being refuted — like 'God's love is mysterious' — is not scientific. Antony Flew applied this to religious language, asking what would count against belief in a loving God.
证伪原则与卡尔·波普尔相关，它主张一个陈述要成为科学的，就必须可能被证明为错误。一个能容纳任何观察结果而从不被驳倒的主张——比如“上帝的爱是神秘的”——就不是科学的。安东尼·弗卢将这一原则应用于宗教语言，问的是究竟有什么事实可以证伪“上帝是爱”的信念。
Memory tip: Verification says 'prove it true'; falsification says 'try to prove it false'.
记忆技巧：证实说“证明它为真”；证伪说“试着证明它为假”。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
或截图后用「扫一扫 → 相册」选择本图