📚 Year 10 Edexcel Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Guide | Year 10 Edexcel 心理学：公式定理速查手册
This quick-reference guide compiles the essential formulas, theorems, and models required for Year 10 Edexcel Psychology. Covering memory, research methods, development, social influence, and the brain, it serves as a handy revision tool to consolidate key quantitative relationships and theoretical frameworks. Use it alongside your class notes to master the core principles of psychological science.
这本速查手册汇总了 Year 10 Edexcel 心理学所必需的核心公式、定理与模型，涵盖记忆、研究方法、发展、社会影响和大脑等领域，是巩固关键量化关系与理论框架的便捷复习工具。请与课堂笔记结合使用，掌握心理科学的核心原理。
1. Memory Capacity & Duration in the Multi-Store Model | 多存储模型中的记忆容量与持续时间
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) describes three distinct stores, each with a specific capacity, duration, and encoding method. The table below summarises these 'memory formulas'.
多存储模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin）描述了三个不同的记忆仓库，每个仓库都有特定的容量、持续时间和编码方式。下表总结了这些“记忆公式”。
| Feature / 特征 | Sensory Memory / 感觉记忆 | Short-Term Memory (STM) / 短时记忆 | Long-Term Memory (LTM) / 长时记忆 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Capacity / 容量 | Very large / 非常大 | 7±2 items / 7±2 个项目 | Potentially unlimited / 潜在地无限 |
| Duration / 持续时间 | ~250 ms (iconic) / 图标记忆约250毫秒 2‑3 sec (echoic) / 声像记忆2‑3秒 | 18‑30 sec (without rehearsal) / 不重复时18‑30秒 | Potentially a lifetime / 潜在地终生 |
| Encoding / 编码 | Sense‑specific (visual, auditory) / 感觉专用（视觉、听觉） | Mainly acoustic / 主要为听觉 | Mainly semantic / 主要为语义 |
These numerical values act as practical thresholds: incoming information must be attended to within these limits to pass from sensory to STM, and rehearsed to enter LTM.
这些数值充当实用阈值：传入的信息必须在这些限度内被注意才能从感觉记忆进入短时记忆，并经复述进入长时记忆。
2. Miller's Law for Short-Term Memory | 短时记忆的米勒定律
Miller' tems (chunks) for most adults. This is one of the most frequently tested quantitative statements in GCSE Psychology.
米勒定律指出，大多数成年人的短时记忆容量大约是 7±2 个项目（组块）。这是 GCSE 心理学中最常被考查的量化陈述之一。
Chunking is the process of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units. For example, the digits 1-9-4-5-2-0-2-4 can be chunked as 1945 and 2024, reducing the load to 2 items.
组块化是将零散信息组合成更大、有意义单元的过程。例如，数字 1‑9‑4‑5‑2‑0‑2‑4 可被组块化为 1945 和 2024，从而将负荷减少至 2 个项目。
rences and distraction can shift the effective capacity toward the lower end of the range.
这个公式化的规则是：短时记忆容量 = 7±2 个组块。个体差异和分心可能使实际容量偏向该范围的下限。
3. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve & Savings Score | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线与节省分数
Hermann Ebbinghaus quantified forgetting using nonsense syllables and measured how much information could be retained over time. The savings score formula is widely used to express memory retention:
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯使用无意义音节量化遗忘，并测量了信息随时间推移的保持程度。节省分数公式被广泛用于表示记忆保持：
Savings Score (%) = (Original learning time − Relearning time) / Original learning time × 100
节省分数 (%) = (原始学习时间 − 重新学习时间) / 原始学习时间 × 100
The forgetting curve shows an exponential decline: most forgetting occurs within the first hour, and the rate levels off after about a day. A typical statement derived from the curve is that roughly 60% of meaningless information is lost after the first hour.
遗忘曲线呈现指数下降：大部分遗忘发生在第一个小时内，遗忘速率在大约一天后趋于平稳。从曲线可推导出的典型表述是，大约 60% 的无意义信息在第一个小时后丢失。
This retention formula helps researchers quantify whether a participant has forgotten completely (0%) or retains some trace (savings > 0).
这种保持公式帮助研究者量化参与者是完全遗忘（0%），还是保留了一些痕迹（节省分数 > 0）。
4. Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median & Mode | 集中趋势测量：均值、中位数与众数
In research methods, central tendency formulas summarise a data set with a single representative value. The three main measures are used depending on the data type and presence of outliers.
在研究方法中，集中趋势公式用一个代表性数值总结数据集。根据数据类型和异常值的存在情况，会使用三种主要测量。
Mean (x̄) = Σx / n
均值 (x̄) = Σx / n
The mean is the arithmetic average: sum all values (Σx) and divide by the number of values (n). It is sensitive to outliers.
均值是算术平均数：将所有值相加（Σx），再除以值的个数（n）。它对异常值敏感。
Median = middle value when data are ordered
中位数 = 数据按顺序排列后的中间值
The median is found by arranging scores in ascending order and picking the central number. For an even number of scores, average the two middle values. It is robust against outliers.
中位数通过将分数按升序排列并选择中间的数字来得到。如果有双数个分数，则取两个中间值的平均数。它对异常值稳健。
Mode = most frequently occurring value
众数 = 出现频率最高的值
The mode is the score that appears most often. A data set can have more than one mode (bimodal) or none if all values are distinct.
众数是出现次数最多的分数。一个数据集可以有多个众数（双众数），如果所有值都不相同则没有众数。
5. Percentage Change Formula | 百分比变化公式
Percentage change is used to compare differences in experimental conditions or before‑and‑after measurements. The formula is straightforward and required for interpreting psychological data.
百分比变化用于比较实验条件或前后测量的差异。公式直接，是解释心理学数据所必需的。
Percentage Change (%) = (New Value − Original Value) / Original Value × 100
百分比变化 (%) = (新值 − 原值) / 原值 × 100
emory score rises from 12 to 18 after a mnemonic strategy, the percentage increase is ((18‑12)/12)×100 = 50%.
正结果表示增加；负结果表示减少。例如，如果记忆得分在使用记忆术后从 12 上升到 18，则增加百分比为 ((18‑12)/12)×100 = 50%。
When analysing ethical cost versus benefit in psychological studies, researchers often use percentage change to express the magnitude of observed effects.
在分析心理学研究中的伦理成本与收益时，研究人员常使用百分比变化来表示所观察效应的幅度。
6. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段论
Piaget's theory outlines a fixed sequence of intellectual stages, each associated with specific cognitive milestones. These stages act as developmental 'theorems' that describe how children's thinking becomes more logical and abstract.
皮亚杰的理论描述了一个固定的智力发展阶段序列，每个阶段都与特定的认知里程碑相关联。这些阶段如同发展的“定理”，描述了儿童思维如何变得更具逻辑性和抽象性。
- Sensorimotor (0‑2 years): Infants learn through senses and actions; object permanence develops around 8 months.
- 感觉运动阶段（0‑2 岁）： 婴儿通过感觉和动作学习；客体永久性在约 8 个月时形成。
- Pre‑operational (2‑7 years): Children use symbols but lack conservation; they are egocentric and struggle with class inclusion.
- 前运算阶段（2‑7 岁）： 儿童使用符号但缺乏守恒能力；他们以自我为中心，并在类包含上存在困难。
- Concrete operational (7‑11 years): Logical reasoning about concrete events emerges; conservation and decentration are mastered.
- 具体运算阶段（7‑11 岁）： 针对具体事件的逻辑推理出现；守恒和去中心化得到掌握。
- Formal operational (11+ years): Abstract, hypothetical thinking and systematic problem‑solving become possible.
- 形式运算阶段（11 岁以上）： 抽象、假设性思维和系统性解决问题成为可能。
Although the ages are approximate, the invariant sequence—from sensorimotor to formal operational—is a cornerstone of developmental psychology and a frequently examined theorem.
尽管年龄只是大致的，但不变的顺序——从感觉运动到形式运算——是发展心理学的基石，也是一个常考的定理。
7. Stimulus‑Response Formula in Classical Conditioning | 经典条件反射的刺激‑反应公式
Pavlov's classical conditioning can be expressed as a series of stimulus‑response (S‑R) associations. The 'formula' below captures how a neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit a conditioned response.
巴甫洛夫的经典条件反射可被表示为一组刺激‑反应（S‑R）联结。下面的“公式”概括了一个中性刺激如何获得引发条件反应的能力。
Before conditioning: UCS → UCR (e.g., food → salivation)
条件反射形成前：非条件刺激 → 非条件反应（例如食物 → 唾液分泌）
During conditioning: NS + UCS → UCR (e.g., bell + food → salivation)
条件反射形成中：中性刺激 + 非条件刺激 → 非条件反应（例如铃声 + 食物 → 唾液分泌）
After conditioning: CS → CR (e.g., bell → salivation)
条件反射形成后：条件刺激 → 条件反应（例如铃声 → 唾液分泌）
Key theorem: The conditioned response will only be maintained if the CS is occasionally paired with the UCS; without this, extinction occurs.
关键定理：条件反应只有在条件刺激偶尔与非条件刺激配对时才能得以维持；否则就会发生消退。
Timing is crucial—the NS must be presented before or simultaneously with the UCS for the association to form efficiently (contiguity).
时机至关重要——中性刺激必须在非条件刺激之前或同时呈现，才能有效形成联结（接近律）。
8. Consequence Formula in Operant Conditioning | 操作性条件反射的行为结果公式
Skinner's operant conditioning states that behaviour is shaped by its consequences. The consequence 'formula' summarises how reinforcement and punishment influence the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
斯金纳的操作性条件反射指出，行为由其结果塑造。这个结果“公式”总结了强化和惩罚如何影响行为被重复的可能性。
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus → behaviour increases. (e.g., praise for homework completion)
- 正强化： 添加一个愉快的刺激 → 行为增加。（例如，完成作业后受到表扬）
- Negative Reinforcement: n : Removing an unpleasant stimulus → behaviour increases. (e.g., taking an aspirin to relieve headache)
- 负强化： 移除一个不愉快的刺激 → 行为增加。（例如，服用阿司匹林以缓解头痛）
- Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus → behaviour decreases. (e.g., scolding for talking out)
- 正惩罚： 添加一个不愉快的刺激 → 行为减少。（例如，因插话而受到责骂）
- Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus → behaviour decreases. (e.g., losing phone privileges)
- 负惩罚： 移除一个愉快的刺激 → 行为减少。（例如，失去使用手机的权利）
The core theorem: Reinforcement (positive or negative) strengthens behaviour; punishment (positive or negative) weakens it. Schedules of reinforcement (continuous, partial) determine the speed of learning and resistance to extinction.
核心定理：强化（正强化或负强化）增强行为；惩罚（正惩罚或负惩罚）削弱行为。强化安排（连续、间歇）决定学习速度和对消退的抵抗能力。
9. Latané & Darley's 5‑Step Bystander Intervention Model | 旁观者干预的五步决策模型
The bystander intervention model is a decision‑based theorem outlining the cognitive steps an individual must pass through to help in an emergency. Failure at any step results in no help being given.
旁观者干预模型是一个基于决策的定理，概述了个体在紧急情况下提供帮助所必须经过的认知步骤。任何一步失败都会导致不施助。
- Notice the event: The potential helper must be aware that something is happening. Distraction, noise, or self‑focus can block this step.
- 注意到事件： 潜在的帮助者必须意识到某事正在发生。分心、噪音或自我焦点会阻碍这一步。
- Interpret it as an emergency: The situation must be defined as requiring help. Pluralistic ignorance (looking to others who appear calm) can lead to misinterpretation.
- 将其解释为紧急情况： 必须将该情境定义为需要帮助。多数无知（看到他人显得平静）可能导致误解。
- Assume responsibility: The individual must feel personally responsible. Diffusion of responsibility in groups reduces this feeling.
- 承担责任： 个体必须感到个人有责任。群体中的责任扩散会减少这种感觉。
- Know how to help: The person must possess the necessary skills or knowledge. Lack of competence creates a barrier.
- 知道如何帮助： 这个人必须具备必要的技能或知识。能力不足会构成障碍。
- Decide to implement help: Even if all previous steps are passed, the bystander must weigh costs (e.g., embarrassment, danger) and decide to act.
- 决定实施帮助： 即使通过了前面所有步骤，旁观者也必须权衡成本（如尴尬、危险）并决定行动。
This theorem is tested using scenarios and explains why the presence of others often reduces helping—a phenomenon known as the bystander effect.
该定理通过情景进行考查，并解释了为什么他人在场往往会减少帮助行为——这一现象被称为旁观者效应。
10. The All‑or‑None Law of Action Potentials | 动作电位的全或无法则
Neurons communicate via electrical impulses called action potentials. The all‑or‑none law is a fundamental physiological theorem stating that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.
神经元通过称为动作电位的电冲动进行通信。全或无法则是一条基本的生理学定理，指出神经元要么完全发放，要么根本不发放。
If stimulation reaches threshold (≈ −55 mV) → action potential fires at full strength.
若刺激达到阈值（约 −55 mV）→ 动作电位以全部强度发放。
If stimulation is below threshold → no action potential.
若刺激低于阈值 → 无动作电位。
Once triggered, the action potential travels along the axon with a fixed magnitude; stronger stimuli do not produce larger potentials—they increase the frequency of impulses instead.
一旦触发，动作电位沿轴突以固定幅度传导；更强的刺激不会产生更大的电位，而是增加冲动发放的频率。
This law is essential for understanding how intensity of a sensation is coded by the brain: a bright light triggers more frequent firing in visual neurons, not larger spikes.
这条法则对于理解大脑如何编码感觉强度至关重要：明亮的光线会使视觉神经元更频繁地发放，而不是产生更大的脉冲。
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