📚 Year 10 WJEC Biology: Formulas and Principles Quick Reference | Year 10 WJEC 生物：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook covers the must-know formulas and core principles for Year 10 WJEC GCSE Biology. Use it to sharpen your calculations, explain key processes, and build exam confidence.
本速查手册涵盖了 Year 10 WJEC GCSE 生物学必须掌握的公式和核心原理。用它来提升你的计算能力、清晰解释关键过程并建立应考信心。
1. Magnification Calculations | 放大率计算
Magnification relates the size of an image to the real size of the object. Always convert units so image size and actual size are in the same unit.
放大倍数将图像大小与物体的实际大小联系起来。务必将单位统一，使图像大小和实际大小的单位相同。
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小
Common conversions: 1 cm = 10 mm; 1 mm = 1000 µ e of a cell measures 25 mm and the real cell is 0.05 mm. Magnification = 25 ÷ 0.05 = ×500.
常用换算：1 厘米 = 10 毫米；1 毫米 = 1000 微米。示例：一个细胞的图像测量为 25 毫米，而实际细胞是 0.05 毫米。放大倍数 = 25 ÷ 0.05 = ×500。
2. Rate of Enzyme-Controlled Reactions | 酶促反应速率
Enzyme activity is often measured by how fast a product appears or a substrate disappears. Use one of these standard formulas.
酶活性通常通过产物出现的速度或底物消失的速度来衡量。使用以下标准公式之一。
Rate = 1 ÷ Time taken (for a clear endpoint, e.g. disappearance of starch)
速率 = 1 ÷ 所需时间（针对明显终点，例如淀粉消失）
Or Rate = Quantity of product formed ÷ Time
或 速率 = 生成的产物量 ÷ 时间
he lock-and-key model explains how the active site is specific to a substrate; temperature and pH can denature the enzyme and slow the rate.
如果过氧化氢酶在 3 分钟内产生 12 立方厘米的氧气，速率 = 12 ÷ 3 = 4 立方厘米/分钟。锁钥模型解释了活性部位如何专一于一种底物；温度和 pH 可能导致酶变性并减慢速率。
3. Surface Area to Volume Ratio | 表面积与体积之比
A large surface area relative to volume speeds up exchange of heat and substances. This ratio is key in explaining how size affects living things.
相对于体积而言，较大的表面积可以加快热量和物质的交换。这个比值对解释生物体大小如何影响生命活动至关重要。
SA:V ratio = Surface area ÷ Volume
表面积与体积之比 = 表面积 ÷ 体积
, so SA:V = 6/x. As an organism grows, its SA:V falls, making diffusion alone insufficient—hence the need for transport systems.
对于边长为 x 的立方体：表面积 = 6x²，体积 = x³，因此 SA:V = 6/x。随着生物体长大，其表面积与体积之比下降，单靠扩散已不足够——因此需要运输系统。
4. Photosynthesis Equation and Limiting Factors | 光合作用方程式及限制因素
Photosynthesis uses light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose. The process is endothermic and only happens in photosynthetic organisms.
光合作用利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖。该过程是吸能的，并且只发生在光合生物中。
Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气
Condition: light energy absorbed by chlorophyll. The balanced symbol equation is:
条件：光能被叶绿素吸收。其平衡化学方程式为：
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
The rate is controlled by limiting factors: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Whichever factor is in shortest supply limits the rate.
速率受限制因素控制：光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。其中供应最短缺的那个因素会限制光合作用速率。
5. Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration Equations | 需氧与厌氧呼吸方程式
All living cells release energy through respiration. The equations below summarise the different pathways you must know.
所有活细胞通过呼吸作用释放能量。以下方程式总结了你必须掌握的不同途径。
Aerobic respiration (uses oxygen):
需氧呼吸（利用氧气）：
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water (+ energy)
葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水 (+ 能量)
Balanced: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
Anaerobic respiration in animals:
动物体内的厌氧呼吸：
Glucose → Lactic acid (+ energy)
葡萄糖 → 乳酸 (+ 能量)
Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) in yeast and plants:
酵母和植物中的厌氧呼吸（发酵）：
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide (+ energy)
葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + 二氧化碳 (+ 能量)
Ethanol formula: C₂H₅OH. Lactic acid formula: C₃H₆O₃.
乙醇分子式：C₂H₅OH。乳酸分子式：C₃H₆O₃。
6. Principles of Diffusion and Factors Affecting Rate | 扩散原理及影响速率的因素
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. It is passive—no energy is needed.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动。它是一个被动过程——不需要能量。
Factors that raise the rate of diffusion: a greater concentration gradient, higher temperature, larger surface area, and shorter diffusion distance.
提高扩散速率的因素：更大的浓度梯度、更高的温度、更大的表面积以及更短的扩散距离。
A useful relationship based on Fick's law:
一个基于菲克定律的实用关系式为：
Rate of diffusion ∝ (Surface area × Concentration difference) ÷ Thickness of exchange surface
扩散速率 ∝ (表面积 × 浓度差) ÷ 交换面的厚度
This explains why the alveoli and villi have thin walls and large surfaces.
这解释了为什么肺泡和绒毛具有薄壁和很大的表面积。
7. Osmosis and Water Potential | 渗透作用与水势
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion: the movement of water molecules from an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane.
渗透是扩散的一种特殊情况：水分子通过部分透性膜从较高水势的区域向较低水势的区域移动。
Water potential is often symbolised by Ψ. Pure water has the highest water potential (0 kPa). Adding solute makes water potential more negative, drawing water in.
水势通常用 Ψ 表示。纯水具有最高的水势（0 kPa）。加入溶质会使水势变得更负，从而吸水。
No calculation is required, but you must apply the water potential gradient to explain turgor, plasmolysis, and water uptake.
不要求计算，但你必须应用水势梯度来解释膨压、质壁分离和水分吸收。
8. Active Transport Mechanism | 主动运输机制
Active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient—from low to high concentration. It requires energy from cellular respiration (ATP).
主动运输将物质逆浓度梯度移动——从低浓度到高浓度。它需要细胞呼吸提供的能量（ATP）。
Carrier proteins in the cell membrane bind the molecule, change shape, and release it on the opposite side. This process is selective and stops if energy supply is cut.
细胞膜中的载体蛋白与分子结合，改变形状，并将其释放到另一侧。这个过程具有选择性，如果能量供应中断就会停止。
Key examples: uptake of mineral ions (e.g. nitrate ions) by root hair cells; absorption of glucose from the gut into the blood.
关键例子：根毛细胞对矿物质离子（如硝酸根
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