📚 Year 10 WJEC Biology: Core Knowledge Essentials | 10年级 WJEC 生物：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide provides a clear and concise overview of the core topics covered in Year 10 WJEC Biology. From cells and transport systems to genetics and ecosystems, each section breaks down key concepts with paired English-Chinese explanations, helping students revise effectively and deepen their understanding of the living world.
本复习指南清晰简明地梳理了 10 年级 WJEC 生物学的核心主题。从细胞与运输系统到遗传与生态系统，每个部分都以英中双语配对讲解关键概念，帮助学生高效复习并加深对生命世界的理解。
1. Cells and Microscopy | 细胞与显微镜
All living organisms are composed of cells. The cell theory states that cells are the basic structural and functional unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
所有生物体都由细胞组成。细胞学说指出，细胞是生命的基本结构与功能单位，且所有细胞都来源于已存在的细胞。
Animal and plant cells share common features, but plant cells also contain a cellulose cell wall, a permanent vacuole, and chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis.
动物细胞和植物细胞具有一些共同结构，但植物细胞还含有纤维素细胞壁、中央大液泡以及负责光合作用的叶绿体。
Bacterial cells are prokaryotic; they lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Their genetic material is a single loop of DNA, and they may have plasmids.
细菌细胞是原核细胞，没有真正的细胞核和膜结合的细胞器。它们的遗传物质是一个环状 DNA，有些还含有质粒。
ens magnification. Total magnification = eyepiece magnification × objective magnification.
使用光学显微镜时，总放大倍数是目镜放大倍数与物镜放大倍数之积。总放大倍数 = 目镜倍数 × 物镜倍数。
2. Cell Membranes and Transport | 细胞膜与物质运输
The cell membrane is selectively permeable, controlling the movement of substances in and out of cells. This is essential for maintaining a stable internal environment.
细胞膜具有选择透过性，控制物质进出细胞，这对维持稳定的内部环境至关重要。
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, down a concentration gradient. It is a passive process and requires no energy.
扩散是粒子顺浓度梯度从高浓度区域向低浓度区域净移动的过程。它属于被动运输，不需要消耗能量。
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a dilute solution (high water potential) to a more concentrated solution (low water potential).
渗透是水分子通过部分透性膜从低浓度溶液（高水势）向高浓度溶液（低水势）净移动的过程。
Active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient, from a low to a high concentration, using energy from ATP. Carrier proteins in the membrane are involved.
主动运输利用 ATP 提供的能量使物质逆浓度梯度移动，即从低浓度运输到高浓度，需要膜上载体蛋白参与。
Factors that affect the rate of transport include temperature, the steepness of the concentration gradient, and the surface area to volume ratio. A larger surface area allows faster exchange.
影响运输速率的因素包括温度、浓度梯度的大小以及表面积与体积之比。表面积越大，物质交换越快。
3. Enzymes and Digestion | 酶与消化
Enzymes are biological catalysts produced by living cells. They speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy, and each enzyme has a specific active site that fits its substrate in a 'lock and key' mechanism.
酶是活细胞产生的生物催化剂，通过降低活化能来加速化学反应。每种酶都有一个特定的活性位点，以“锁钥”机制与底物结合。
Enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH. Each enzyme works best at its optimum temperature and pH. Extremes of pH or high temperatures can denature the enzyme, changing the shape of its active site permanently.
酶的活性受温度和 pH 的影响。每种酶在其最适温度和最适 pH 下活性最高。极端的 pH 或高温会使酶变性，永久改变活性位点的形状。
During digestion, large insoluble molecules are broken down. Carbohydrases like amylase break starch into maltose, proteases break proteins into amino acids, and lipases break lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
消化过程中，大分子不溶性物质被分解。淀粉酶等糖酶将淀粉分解为麦芽糖，蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸，脂肪酶将脂质分解为脂肪酸和甘油。
Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fats to provide a larger surface area for lipase action, and also neutralises stomach acid to create an alkaline pH suitable for intestinal enzymes.
胆汁由肝脏产生并储存在胆囊中，它能乳化脂肪，为脂肪酶提供更大的作用表面积，同时中和胃酸，为肠道酶创造适宜的碱性 pH。
Food tests are used to identify nutrients: Benedict's solution for reducing sugars (turns brick red on heating), biuret reagent for protein (turns purple), iodine solution for starch (turns blue-black), and ethanol emulsion for lipids (milky white emulsion).
食物测试用于鉴定营养物质：本尼迪克特试剂检测还原糖（加热后呈砖红色），双缩脲试剂检测蛋白质（变紫），碘液检测淀粉（呈蓝黑色），乙醇乳化法检测脂质（产生乳白色乳浊液）。
4. The Respiratory System and Gas Exchange | 呼吸系统与气体交换
The human respiratory system consists of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. Air is moved in and out of the lungs by the action of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles during ventilation.
人体呼吸系统由气管、支气管、细支气管和肺泡组成。在通气过程中，膈肌和肋间肌的运动带动空气进出肺部。
Alveoli are tiny air sacs that provide an extremely large surface area for gas exchange. Their walls are one cell thick and are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries, ensuring a short diffusion distance and rich blood supply.
肺泡是微小的气囊，为气体交换提供了巨大的表面积。肺泡壁仅有一层细胞厚，外部包围着密集的毛细血管网，确保了较短的扩散距离和丰富的血液供给。
Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled. Both gases move down their concentration gradients.
氧气从肺泡扩散进入血液，二氧化碳则从血液扩散进入肺泡被呼出。两种气体均顺着各自的浓度梯度移动。
nergy). Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells produces lactic acid: glucose → lactic acid.
有氧呼吸利用氧气从葡萄糖中释放能量。其平衡的文字方程式为：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水（+ 能量）。肌肉细胞中的无氧呼吸产生乳酸：葡萄糖 → 乳酸。
The presence of carbon dioxide can be confirmed by bubbling the gas through limewater, which turns cloudy or milky. This simple test is often used in respiration experiments.
可通过将气体通入石灰水来验证二氧化碳的存在，石灰水会变浑浊或呈乳白色。这个简单实验常用于呼吸作用探究中。
5. The Circulatory System and Blood | 循环系统与血液
The human circulatory system is a double circulation, consisting of the pulmonary circuit (heart to lungs and back) and the systemic circuit (heart to body and back). The heart has four chambers: left and right atria and ventricles.
人体循环系统为双循环，包括肺循环（心脏–肺–心脏）和体循环（心脏–身体–心脏）。心脏有四个腔室：左心房、左心室和右心房、右心室。
Valves in the heart and veins prevent the backflow of blood, ensuring that blood flows in one direction. The muscular left ventricle has a thicker wall because it pumps blood to the entire body.
心脏和静脉中的瓣膜防止血液倒流，确保血液单向流动。左心室肌肉壁较厚，因为它要将血液泵向全身。
Arteries carry blood away from the heart at high pressure and have thick, elastic muscular walls. Veins carry blood back to the heart at lower pressure and possess valves. Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled vessels where exchange of materials occurs.
动脉将血液从心脏高压输出，管壁厚而且富有弹性和肌肉。静脉将血液低压送回心脏，并有瓣膜。毛细血管是极薄壁的微小血管，是物质交换的场所。
Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin to transport oxygen; white blood cells defend against infection; platelets help with blood clotting.
血液由血浆、红细胞、白细胞和血小板组成。红细胞含血红蛋白，运输氧气；白细胞防御感染；血小板协助血液凝固。
During exercise, the heart rate increases and arteries supplying muscles dilate to deliver more oxygen and glucose for increased respiration, while removing carbon dioxide more rapidly.
运动时，心率加快，供肌肉的动脉扩张，以输送更多氧气和葡萄糖满足增强的呼吸作用，同时更快地清除二氧化碳。
6. The Nervous System and Reflexes | 神经系统与反射
The nervous system enables animals to detect and respond to stimuli. It is comprised of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nerves.
神经系统使动物能探测并响应刺激。它由中枢神经系统（脑和脊髓）和周围神经组成。
Neurones are specialised cells that transmit electrical impulses. Sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the CNS; motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors; relay neurones connect sensory and motor neurones inside the CNS.
神经元是传递电冲动的特化细胞。感觉神经元将冲动从感受器传向中枢神经系统；运动神经元将冲动从中枢神经系统传向效应器；中间神经元在中枢神经系统内连接感觉和运动神经元。
At a synapse, an electrical impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitter chemicals, which diffuse across the gap and bind to receptors on the next neurone, initiating a new impulse.
在突触处，电冲动触发神经递质化学物质的释放，递质扩散通过间隙并结合到下一个神经元上的受体，引发新的冲动。
al reflex: receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone → effector (muscle).
反射弧是对刺激的快速自动反应，绕过了大脑。例如，触碰烫物触发缩手反射：感受器 → 感觉神经元 → 中间神经元 → 运动神经元 → 效应器（肌肉）。
The eye is a sense organ that contains receptors sensitive to light. Light enters through the cornea, passes through the pupil (controlled by the iris), and is focused by the lens onto the retina, where impulses begin. The optic nerve transmits impulses to the brain.
眼睛是含有光感受器的感觉器官。光线通过角膜进入，穿过瞳孔（由虹膜控制大小），经晶状体聚焦到视网膜上，在此产生冲动，视神经将冲动传向大脑。
7. Homeostasis and the Kidneys | 稳态与肾脏
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body. This includes regulating temperature, blood glucose concentration, water balance and the removal of waste products.
稳态是指维持体内稳定的内部环境，包括调节体温、血糖浓度、水平衡以及清除废物。
The kidneys filter the blood and produce urine. Each kidney contains about one million nephrons. In the Bowman's capsule, small molecules are filtered under pressure; useful substances such as glucose and some water are then reabsorbed back into the blood in the tubule.
肾脏过滤血液并生成尿液。每个肾脏含有约一百万个肾单位。在肾小囊中，小分子物质在压力下被滤过；随后在肾小管中，葡萄糖和部分水等有用物质被重吸收回血液。
The concentration of urine is controlled by the hormone ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), which is released from the pituitary gland. ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct walls so that more water is reabsorbed.
尿液浓度受抗利尿激素（ADH）调控，该激素由垂体释放。ADH 增加集合管对水的通透性，使更多水被重吸收。
In kidney failure, dialysis can artificially filter the blood using a partially permeable membrane, or a kidney transplant may be performed. Both treatments help maintain homeostasis.
肾功能衰竭时，可通过透析利用部分透性膜人工过滤血液，或者进行肾移植。这两种治疗手段都有助于维持稳态。
8. Photosynthesis and Plant Transport | 光合作用与植物运输
captured by chlorophyll. The word equation is: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen.
光合作用是绿色植物利用叶绿素捕获的光能，将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖的过程。文字方程式为：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气。
The leaf is adapted for photosynthesis. Its broad, flat shape provides a large surface area to absorb light; the palisade layer contains many chloroplasts; stomata allow gas exchange; and veins bring water and carry away sugar.
叶片具有适应光合作用的特征。它宽而扁的形状提供了吸收光线的大表面积；栅栏组织含有大量叶绿体；气孔允许气体交换；叶脉输送水分并运走糖分。
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by limiting factors: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Graphs of these factors show rates levelling off when another factor becomes limiting.
光合作用速率受限制因素的影响：光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。从这些因素的曲线图可以看出，当另一个因素成为限制时，速率会趋于平稳。
Xylem vessels transport water and dissolved mineral ions from the roots upwards through the plant. This upward movement is driven by transpiration, the evaporation of water from the stomata.
木质部导管将水和溶解的矿物质离子从根部向上运输到植株各处。这种向上的流动由蒸腾作用驱动，即水分从气孔蒸发的过程。
Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids (products of photosynthesis and assimilation) from sources to sinks where they are used or stored, a process called translocation. This movement can be both upwards and downwards.
韧皮部将蔗糖和氨基酸（光合作用与同化作用的产物）从源运输到库，供使用或储存，这一过程称为输导，运输方向可上可下。
9. Ecosystems and Nutrient Cycles | 生态系统与营养循环
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. Producers (plants and algae) are at the start of food chains, converting light energy into chemical energy.
生态系统是生物群落与非生物环境相互作用的整体。生产者（植物和藻类）位于食物链的起点，将光能转化为化学能。
Food chains and food webs describe the feeding relationships. Arrows represent the direction of energy flow. Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead material, recycling nutrients back into the soil.
食物链和食物网描述了摄食关系，箭头代表能量流动的方向。细菌和真菌等分解者分解死去的生物体，将养分归还到土壤中。
Pyramids of number show the count of organisms at each trophic level, while pyramids of biomass show the total dry mass. In most ecosystems, biomass decreases at each successive trophic level.
数量金字塔显示每个营养级内生物个体的数目，而生物量金字塔显示总干重。在大多数生态系统中，生物量随营养级升高而递减。
The carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, living organisms and fossil fuels. Key processes are photosynthesis (takes in CO₂), respiration and combustion (release CO₂), and decomposition.
碳循环涉及碳在大气、生物体和化石燃料之间的流动。关键过程包括光合作用（吸收 CO₂）、呼吸作用和燃烧（释放 CO₂）以及分解。
The nitrogen cycle recycles nitrogen through the environment. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates; nitrifying bacteria turn ammonium into nitrites then nitrates; denitrifying bacteria return nitrogen to the air. Plants absorb nitrates to make proteins.
氮循环在环境中循环氮元素。固氮菌将大气中的氮转化为硝酸盐；硝化细菌将铵依次转化为亚硝酸盐和硝酸盐；反硝化细菌将氮送回空气中。植物吸收硝酸盐合成蛋白质。
10. DNA, Genes and Inheritance | DNA、基因与遗传
DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information. It has a double helix structure and is organised into chromosomes inside the nucleus. A gene is a short section of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
DNA 是携带遗传信息的分子，具有双螺旋结构，在细胞核内组织成染色体。基因是 DNA 上编码特定蛋白质的一小段序列。
Alleles are different versions of the same gene. For any gene, an individual receives one allele from each parent. Dominant alleles are expressed even if only one copy is present; recessive alleles require two copies to show the trait.
等位基因是同一基因的不同版本。对于任一基因，个体从父母各获得一个等位基因。显性等位基因只要存在一个拷贝就能表达；隐性等位基因需要两个拷贝才能表现性状。
A monohybrid cross studies the inheritance of a single characteristic. A Punnett square can be used to predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring. Genotype describes the alleles present, while phenotype is the observable feature.
单基因杂交研究单一性状的遗传。庞纳特方格可用于预测后代的基因型比和表现型比。基因型描述个体携带的等位基因，表现型是可观察到的特征。
Homozygous individuals have two identical alleles for a trait (e.g., AA or aa), while heterozygous individuals have two different alleles (Aa). Some genetic disorders, like cystic fibrosis, are caused by recessive alleles, while polydactyly is caused by a dominant allele.
纯合子个体拥有两个相同的等位基因（如 AA 或 aa），杂合子则拥有两个不同的等
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