📚 Year 10 CIE Sociology: Vocabulary and Terminology Quick Reference Guide | Year 10 CIE 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociological vocabulary is essential for success in the Year 10 CIE Sociology course. This quick reference guide presents key terms and concepts grouped by theme, with clear bilingual explanations to help you memorise and apply them effectively in exams.
掌握社会学术语是攻读 Year 10 CIE 社会学课程的关键。本速记指南按主题分组，提供清晰的双语解释，帮助你高效记忆并在考试中灵活运用。
1. Culture, Norms, and Values | 文化、规范与价值观
Culture: The shared way of life of a group of people, passed on from one generation to the next, including their beliefs, values, norms, language, and material objects.
文化：一个群体共享的生活方式，代代相传，包括他们的信仰、价值观、规范、语言和物质产品。
Norms: Socially accepted rules of behaviour that guide how people act in specific situations. They can be formal (laws) or informal (customs).
规范：社会认可的行为规则，指导人们在特定情境中如何行动。规范可以是正式的（法律）或非正式的（习俗）。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is right, wrong, desirable or undesirable in a society. They provide the foundation for norms.
价值观：关于社会中什么是正确、错误、可取或不可取的深层信念。它为规范提供了基础。
Subculture: A group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms, values, and lifestyle, while still sharing some elements of the mainstream culture.
亚文化：在更大文化内部的一个群体，拥有自己独特的规范、价值观和生活方式，同时仍与主流文化共享某些元素。
Cultural diversity: The existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society. It highlights differences in language, traditions, and customs.
文化多样性：一个社会内部存在多种文化或种族群体，突出语言、传统和习俗的差异。
Social construction: The idea that our understanding of reality, such as childhood or crime, is created and defined by society rather than being naturally fixed.
社会建构：认为我们对现实（例如童年或犯罪）的理解是由社会创造和定义的，而非自然固定的。
Cultural relativism: Judging a culture by its own standards rather than by the standards of another culture. It encourages understanding without ethnocentric bias.
文化相对主义：用该文化自身的标准来评判它，而不是用另一个文化的标准。它鼓励理解，避免种族中心主义偏见。
2. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and behaviours appropriate to their society.
社会化：个体通过学习获得适合其社会的规范、价值观和行为的终生过程。
Primary socialisation: The earliest and most intense form of socialisation, typically occurring in the family, where young children learn basic language, norms, and values.
初级社会化：最早、最密集的社会化形式，通常发生在家庭中，幼儿在此学习基本的语言、规范和价值观。
Secondary socialisation: Socialisation that occurs later in life through agencies such as schools, peer groups, the media, and workplaces, building on primary socialisation.
次级社会化：在人生后期通过学校、同辈群体、媒体和工作单位等施教机构进行的社会化，是在初级社会化基础上的发展。
Agencies of socialisation: Institutions and groups that transmit norms and values, including family, education, peer groups, religion, mass media, and the workplace.
社会化施教机构：传递规范和价值观的制度和群体，包括家庭、教育、同辈群体、宗教、大众媒体和工作单位。
Role: The expected pattern of behaviour associated with a particular social status, such as the role of a student, parent, or employee.
角色：与特定社会地位相关的期望行为模式，如学生、父母或员工的角色。
Status: A social position an individual holds. It can be ascribed (given at birth, such as sex or royalty) or achieved (gained through effort, such as a qualification).
地位：个体所占据的社会位置。可分为先赋地位（与生俱来，如性别或皇室身份）和自致地位（通过努力获得，如学历）。
Identity: An individual's sense of self, shaped by social interactions and memberships in groups, including aspects of gender, ethnicity, class, and culture.
身份认同：个体对自我的感知，由社会互动和群体成员身份所塑造，包括性别、种族、阶级和文化等方面。
3. Social Control and Conformity | 社会控制与顺从
Social control: The methods used by society to ensure individuals conform to its norms and values. It can be formal or informal.
社会控制：社会用来确保个体遵循其规范和价值观的方法。可分为正式控制和非正式控制。
Formal social control: Control exercised by official institutions such as the police, courts, and government, which enforces rules through laws and written policies.
正式社会控制：由警察、法院和政府等官方机构实施的控制，通过法律和成文政策强制执行规则。
Informal social control: Control exercised through unofficial means, such as peer pressure, family expectations, and community disapproval, shaping behaviour without formal sanctions.
非正式社会控制：通过非官方手段实施的控制，如同辈压力、家庭期望和社区不赞成，在没有正式制裁的情况下塑造行为。
Sanctions: Rewards or punishments used to enforce norms. Positive sanctions encourage conformity (praise, medals), while negative sanctions discourage deviance (fines, imprisonment).
制裁：用于执行规范的奖励或惩罚。正面制裁鼓励顺从（如赞赏、奖章），负面制裁制止越轨（如罚款、监禁）。
Conformity: Behaviour that follows the accepted norms and expectations of a social group or society, often to gain approval or avoid rejection.
顺从：遵循社会团体或社会所认可的规范和期望的行为，通常是为了获得认可或避免排斥。
Obedience: Following direct orders from an authority figure, even if the orders conflict with personal conscience or norms, as shown in Milgram's experiments.
服从：听从权威人物的直接命令，即使这些命令与个人良知或规范相冲突，如米尔格拉姆实验所示。
4. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Social stratification: The division of society into hierarchical layers based on factors such as class, wealth, status, and power, leading to unequal access to resources.
社会分层：社会根据阶级、财富、地位和权力等因素划分成等级层次，导致资源获取不平等。
Class: A form of stratification based on economic factors such as occupation, income, and wealth. Sociologists often distinguish between upper, middle, and working classes.
阶级：基于职业、收入和财富等经济因素的分层形式。社会学家通常区分上层、中层和工人阶级。
Social mobility: The movement of individuals or groups between different social positions. It can be vertical (upward or downward) or horizontal.
社会流动：个体或群体在不同社会位置之间的移动。可以是垂直的（向上或向下）或水平的。
Life chances: The opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life, including access to education, healthcare, and employment, often shaped by class.
生活机会：个体改善其生活质量的机会，包括获得教育、医疗和就业的机会，往往受阶级影响。
Meritocracy: A system in which social positions are allocated on the basis of individual talent, effort, and achievement rather than ascribed characteristics.
精英治理：基于个人才能、努力和成就而非先赋特征来分配社会地位的制度。
Absolute poverty: A condition where individuals lack the basic resources needed for survival, such as food, clean water, and shelter.
绝对贫困：个体缺乏维持生存所需基本资源（如食物、洁净水和住所）的状况。
Relative poverty: A standard of living significantly below the average in a given society, defined in relation to what is considered normal or acceptable.
相对贫困：低于特定社会平均水平的显著较低生活标准，以社会认为正常或可接受的标准为参照。
5. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与种族
Sex: The biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy.
生理性别：男性和女性之间的生物学差异，包括染色体、激素和解剖结构。
Gender: The social and cultural characteristics associated with being masculine or feminine, learned through socialisation and varying across cultures.
社会性别：与男性气质或女性气质相关的社会文化特征，通过社会化习得，且因文化而异。
Gender roles: The behaviours, tasks, and responsibilities that a society considers appropriate for men and women. They can reinforce inequality.
性别角色：社会认为适合男性和女性的行为、任务和责任。它们可能加剧不平等。
Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property.
父权制：一种男性拥有主要权力并在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制中占主导地位的社会制度。
Feminism: A sociological perspective and social movement that advocates for gender equality and challenges patriarchal structures in society.
女性主义：一种倡导性别平等、挑战社会父权结构的社会学视角和社会运动。
Ethnicity: A shared cultural identity based on common history, language, religion, traditions, and ancestry, distinct from race.
族群：基于共同历史、语言、宗教、传统和祖先的共享文化身份，与种族不同。
Race: A socially constructed category used to classify people based on perceived physical differences, such as skin colour, often used to justify inequality.
种族：一种社会建构的类别，根据感知的身体差异（如肤色）对人进行分类，常被用来为不平等辩护。
Institutional racism: Racism embedded in the policies and practices of social institutions, leading to systematic discrimination even without individual intent.
制度性种族主义：渗透在社会机构的政策和实践中的种族主义，即使没有个人意图，也会导致系统性歧视。
6. Family and Household | 家庭与住户
Family: A social group of two or more people related by blood, marriage, adoption, or mutual commitment, who share a household and emotional bonds.
家庭：由两个或以上因血缘、婚姻、收养或相互承诺而关联、共享住户和情感纽带的人组成的社会群体。
Household: A person living alone or a group of people who share a living arrangement, such as a house or apartment, but are not necessarily related.
住户：独居或共享一个居住单元（如房屋或公寓）的一群人，他们之间不一定有亲属关系。
Nuclear family: A family unit consisting of two generations – parents and their dependent children – living together. Often seen as traditional in many Western societies.
核心家庭：由父母及其受抚养子女两代人组成的家庭单位，通常在一起生活。在许多西方社会被视为传统形式。
Extended family: A family structure that includes three or more generations living together or in close proximity, such as grandparents, parents, and children.
扩展家庭：包含三代或更多代成员共同居住或密切相邻的家庭结构，如祖父母、父母和子女。
Lone-parent family: A family in which one parent lives with and cares for their dependent children, without a partner. This structure has increased in many societies.
单亲家庭：单亲家长与受抚养子女同住并照料，无伴侣参与的家庭。这一结构在许多社会有所增加。
Reconstituted family: A blended family formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new household, sometimes with shared children.
重组家庭：一方或双方带着前段关系所生的子女组成新住户的融合家庭，有时还会共同生育子女。
Symmetrical family: A family form described by Willmott and Young in which roles of husband and wife are shared more equally, with joint decision-making and similar contributions.
对称家庭：威尔莫特和杨描述的一种家庭形式，丈夫和妻子的角色更加平等分担，共同决策且贡献相似。
Domestic division of labour: The way household tasks, childcare, and paid work are divided between men and women in a family, often reflecting gender inequalities.
家庭劳动分工：家务、育儿和有偿工作在家庭男女成员之间的分配方式，往往反映性别不平等。
7. Education | 教育
Formal education: The structured learning that takes place in schools, colleges, and universities, following an official curriculum and leading to recognised qualifications.
正规教育：在学校、学院和大学中进行的结构化学习，遵循官方课程，可获得受认可的资格。
Hidden curriculum: The informal lessons and values taught in schools alongside the formal curriculum, such as obedience, punctuality, and respect for authority.
隐性课程：学校在正规课程之外传递的非正式课程和价值观，如服从、守时和尊重权威。
Equality of opportunity: The principle that all individuals should have the same chances to succeed in education, regardless of their background. In reality, social factors often limit this.
机会均等：所有个体不论背景都应有同样机会在教育中取得成功的原则。现实中，社会因素常常限制这一点。
Material deprivation: A lack of economic resources and physical goods, such as inadequate housing, poor nutrition, or lack of educational materials, which can negatively affect educational achievement.
物质剥夺：缺乏经济资源和物质产品，如住房不足、营养不良或缺少学习材料，可能对教育成就产生负面影响。
Cultural deprivation: A deficit in the cultural resources needed for educational success, such as language skills, parental interest, and values, sometimes linked to working-class backgrounds.
文化剥夺：缺乏教育成功所需的文化资源，如语言技能、父母关注和价值观，有时与工人阶级背景相关。
Labelling in education: The process by which teachers attach a label or category to a student (e.g. 'bright' or 'troublemaker'), which can influence their self-image and academic performance.
教育中的标签：教师给学生贴标签或分类（如“聪明”或“捣蛋鬼”）的过程，可能影响学生的自我形象和学业表现。
Self-fulfilling prophecy: When a prediction or label causes the expected outcome to occur, for example a student labelled as low-achieving may perform poorly because they internalise the label.
自我实现预言：当一项预测或标签导致预期结果发生时，例如被贴上低成就标签的学生可能因为内化该标签而表现不佳。
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