📚 Year 10 OCR Sociology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | 社会学公式定理速查手册
This handbook compiles the essential calculation formulas used in research methods and the key theoretical 'theorems' that form the backbone of Year 10 OCR Sociology. Whether you are analysing data or explaining social structures, having these at your fingertips will sharpen your revision. Each entry pairs a clear English explanation with a Chinese translation to support bilingual mastery.
本手册汇集了 Year 10 OCR 社会学研究方法中的核心计算公式和构成学科骨架的关键理论“定理”。无论你是在分析数据还是在解释社会结构，随身携带这些知识都能让复习事半功倍。每一条目都配有清晰的中英文双语解释，帮助你掌握。
1. Mean | 均值
The mean, commonly known as the average, is found by adding all the values in a data set and then dividing by the total number of values. It is suitable for interval and ratio data and is widely used in sociological research to summarise central tendency.
均值，通常称为平均数，是将数据集中的所有数值相加，再除以数值的个数得到的。它适用于区间和比率数据，在社会学研究中被广泛用于概括集中趋势。
Mean = Σx / n
Sociologists often calculate mean income or mean age within a sample. However, the mean is sensitive to extreme outliers – one very high income can pull the average upward, making it less representative of a typical case.
社会学家经常计算样本的平均收入或平均年龄。然而，均值对极端值非常敏感——一个极高的收入会使平均数向上偏移，使其代表性降低。
2. Median | 中位数
The median is the middle value when all data points are arranged in ascending order. If there is an odd number of observations, the median is the exact middle point; if even, it is the average of the two central numbers.
中位数是将所有数据按升序排列后位于正中间的数值。如果数据个数为奇数，中位数就是最中间的那个值；如果是偶数，则为中间两个数值的平均数。
For odd n: Median = middle value
For even n: Median = (middle two values) ÷ 2
The median is often preferred when studying skewed distributions, such as wealth or household size, because it is not affected by extreme figures. In OCR fieldwork, you might use the median to report the typical number of children per family.
在研究偏态分布（如财富或家庭规模）时常常优先使用中位数，因为它不受极端数据的影响。在 OCR 实地调查中，你可以用中位数来报告每个家庭的典型子女数量。
3. Mode | 众数
The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set. A set may have one mode (unimodal), two modes (bimodal) or more. It is the only measure of central tendency that works for categorical data.
众数是数据集中出现次数最多的数值。一组数据可能有一个众数（单峰分布）、两个众数（双峰分布）或多个众数。它是唯一适用于类别数据的集中趋势指标。
Mode = most frequent value(s)
In sociological surveys, the mode is useful for identifying the most common ethnic group, favourite leisure activity or most frequently chosen answer in a questionnaire. It tells you what is typical by popularity, not by calculation.
在社会学调查中，众数有助于识别最常见的族裔、最受欢迎的休闲活动或问卷中最常被选中的答案。它通过流行程度而非运算告诉你什么是典型。
4. Range | 极差
The range measures the spread of data by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value. It is a simple measure of dispersion that shows how varied the responses are.
极差通过用最大值减去最小值来衡量数据的离散程度。它是一种简单的离差度量方式，能显示回答的差异有多大。
Range = Maximum value - Minimum value
A small range suggests consensus or homogeneity among participants, while a large range reveals wide inequality or diversity. For example, the age range in a youth club study might be 11 to 19 years, giving a range of 8 years.
极差小表明参加者之间意见一致或同质性高，极差大则揭示出严重的不平等或多样性。例如，对青年俱乐部的研究中年龄范围可能是11至19岁，极差为8岁。
5. Percentage Change | 百分比变化
Percentage change compares the difference between an old and a new value relative to the original value. It is essential for analysing trends over time, such as changes in crime rates or exam results.
百分比变化通过比较新旧数值的差异与原值之比来反映变化幅度。在分析犯罪率或考试成绩随时间变化的趋势时，它是必不可少的工具。
Percentage Change = ((New Value - Original Value) ÷ Original Value) × 100%
If a school's GCSE pass rate rose from 70% to 77%, the percentage change is ((77-70)/70)×100% ≈ 10% se. Always identify whether the change is relative or absolute to avoid misinterpretation.
如果一所学校的GCSE通过率从70%上升到77%，百分比变化为((77-70)/70)×100% ≈ 10%。负数表示下降。一定要分清相对变化和绝对变化，避免误读。
6. Functionalism: Key Theorems | 功能主义核心定理
Functionalism views society as a stable, ordered system made of interconnected parts – institutions like family, education and religion – each performing functions that maintain social equilibrium.
功能主义将社会视为一个稳定有序的系统，由家庭、教育、宗教等相互关联的机构组成，每个部分都承担着维持社会均衡的功能。
Durkheim's collective conscience theorem: Shared beliefs and values bind individuals together; without them, anomie (normlessness) arises.
涂尔干的集体意识定理：共同的信仰和价值观将个体凝聚在一起；缺失则会导致失范（无规范状态）。
Parsons' AGIL theorem: All social systems must solve four problems: Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration and Latency (pattern maintenance).
帕森斯的AGIL定理：所有社会系统必须解决四个问题：适应、目标达成、整合和维模（模式维持）。
Davis and Moore's stratification theorem: Social inequality is inevitable and functional because it ensures that the most talented individuals fill the most important roles.
戴维斯与摩尔的阶层化定理：社会不平等不可避免且具有正功能，因为它确保最有才华的人担任最重要的角色。
7. Marxism: Key Theorems | 马克思主义核心定理
Marxism argues that society is structured by economic relationships and characterised by conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (workers). Culture and institutions reinforce ruling-class interests.
马克思主义认为社会由经济关系构成，并以资产阶级（资本所有者）与无产阶级（工人）之间的冲突为特征。文化和制度巩固着统治阶级的利益。
Base and superstructure theorem: The economic base (relations of production) shapes the superstructure (family, law, education, media, religion).
经济基础与上层建筑定理：经济基础（生产关系）塑造上层建筑（家庭、法律、教育、媒体、宗教）。
Ideological state apparatus theorem (Althusser): Institutions transmit bourgeois ideology to legitimate inequality and prevent revolution.
阿尔都塞的意识形态国家机器定理：机构传播资产阶级意识形态，使不平等合法化并阻止革命。
Polarisation of classes theorem: Capitalism inevitably widens the gap between rich and poor, leading to class consciousness and eventual overthrow.
阶级两极分化定理：资本主义不可避免地拉大贫富差距，催生阶级意识并最终导致推翻现有制度。
8. Feminism: Key Theorems | 女性主义核心定理
Feminist sociology maintains that gender inequality is a fundamental division in society, created and sustained by patriarchy – a system where men hold power and women are systematically disadvantaged.
女性主义社会学认为，性别不平等是社会的基本分裂，由父权制创造并维系——一个男性掌权、女性被系统性置于劣势的体系。
Liberal feminist theorem: Sexist attitudes and socialisation trap women; legal reforms and equal opportunities can bring progress.
自由女性主义定理：性别歧视态度和社会化使女性受困；法律改革和机会平等可推动进步。
Radical feminist theorem: Patriarchy is the primary form of oppression, rooted in biology and the family; personal life is political.
激进女性主义定理：父权制是首要的压迫形式，根植于生理和家庭；个人生活就是政治。
Intersectionality theorem (Crenshaw): Gender cannot be examined in isolation; it intersects with race, class and sexuality to shape multiple disadvantages.
交叉性定理（克伦肖）：性别不能孤立考察；它与种族、阶级和性取向交叉，共同塑造多重的劣势。
9. Interactionism & Social Construction Theorem | 互动论与社会建构定理
Interactionism focuses on micro-level, everyday social interactions. It argues that reality is socially constructed through shared meanings, symbols and language. No social structure exists independently of human interpretation.
互动论专注于微观层面的日常社会互动。它认为现实是通过共享的意义、符号和语言社会建构而成的。没有任何社会结构能独立于人的解释而存在。
Blumer's symbolic interaction theorem: People act toward things based on the meanings those things have for them; meanings arise from social interaction and are modified through interpretation.
布鲁默的符号互动定理：人们根据事物对他们的意义来行事；意义产生于社会互动，并通过解释得到修正。
Theorem of the looking-glass self (Cooley): Our self-concept develops from how we imagine others perceive us, a central mechanism in socialisation and identity formation.
镜中我定理（库利）：我们的自我概念来自我们对他人如何看待自己的想象，这是社会化与身份形成的核心机制。
10. Sampling & Probability in Research | 研究方法中的抽样与概率
A sample is a subset of a target population. The probability of being selected in simple random sampling is equal for every member. Understanding probability helps evaluate how representative a sample is.
样本是目标总体的一个子集。在简单随机抽样中，每个成员被选中的概率相等。理解概率有助于评估样本的代表性。
Probability of selection = n (sample size) / N (population size)
unit is chosen randomly. Non-probability methods (snowball, volunteer) cannot yield statistically generalisable findings.
对于分层抽样，概率在每个层内计算。系统抽样使用抽样间距 k = N/n，并随机选择第一个个体。非概率抽样方法（滚雪球、自愿样本）无法得出统计上可推广的结论。
| Sampling Method | Probability Basis |
|---|---|
| Simple Random | n/N for all |
| Stratified | n₁/N₁ per stratum |
| Systematic | 1/k interval |
| Quota | Non-probability |
11. Social Mobility Theorems | 社会流动定理
Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between social positions. Sociologists distinguish between intragenerational mobility (within a person's lifetime) and intergenerational mobility (between parents and children).
社会流动指个人或群体在社会位置之间的移动。社会学家区分代内流动（个人一生中的流动）和代际流动（父母与子女之间的流动）。
Absolute mobility theorem: Measures the overall number of people who move up or down compared with their parents; it can rise even if relative mobility stagnates.
绝对流动定理：衡量与父母相比地位上升或下降的总人数；即使相对流动停滞，绝对流动仍可能上升。
Relative mobility theorem: Compares the chances of moving up between different social classes. A high level of relative mobility means origin matters less for destination.
相对流动定理：比较不同社会阶级向上流动的机会。相对流动水平高意味着出身对结局的影响较小。
Structural mobility theorem: Shifts in the occupational structure (e.g. growth in professional jobs) create upward mobility independently of individual effort or merit.
结构性流动定理：职业结构的变迁（如专业岗位的增长）创造了向上流动，独立于个人努力或能力。
12. Labelling Theory & Deviance Amplification Theorem | 标签理论与偏差放大定理
Labelling theory holds that deviance is not inherent in an act but is a consequence of the label applied by powerful agents. Once labelled, an individual may internalise that identity, leading to further deviance and a self-fulfilling prophecy.
标签理论认为，偏差行为不在于行为本身，而是强势的行动者贴上标签的结果。一旦被贴上标签，个人可能内化该身份，导致进一步的偏差行为，成为一种自我实现的预言。
Lemert's primary and secondary deviance theorem: Primary deviance is the initial act that goes unlabelled; secondary deviance is behaviour that results from the societal reaction and labelling process.
莱默特的初次与再次偏差定理：初次偏差是未被标签化的初始行为；再次偏差是源于社会反应和标签化过程的行为。
Deviance amplification theorem (Cohen): When the media and authorities label a group, they often provoke a reaction that makes the deviance more extreme, setting off a spiral of increased control and increased deviance.
偏差放大定理（科恩）：当媒体和官方给某一群体贴上标签时，常常激起一种反应，使偏差行为更加极端，引发控制升级和偏差升级的螺旋。
In OCR exams, you can apply these theorems to studies of youth subcultures, criminal justice policies and moral panics, demonstrating how interactionist ideas explain social control.
在 OCR 考试中，你可以将这些定理应用到对青年亚文化、刑事司法政策和道德恐慌的研究中，展示互动论思想如何解释社会控制。
Published by TutorHao | Sociology Revision Series | aleveler.com
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