📚 Year 10 OCR Biology Quick Reference Formula & Theorem Handbook | Year 10 OCR 生物：公式定理速查手册
Mastering key formulas and theorems is essential for success in Year 10 OCR Biology. This quick reference handbook brings together all the must‑know equations, word equations, and conceptual models you will meet in the course, from calculating magnification to describing enzyme action. Each entry is presented in clear, concise English and Chinese pairings so you can check your understanding quickly and revise efficiently.
掌握核心公式与定理是 Year 10 OCR 生物取得好成绩的关键。本速查手册汇集了课程中所有必背的方程、文字方程和概念模型，从计算放大倍数到描述酶的作用，一应俱全。每一条都以清晰的中英对照呈现，方便你快速核对理解、高效复习。
1. Magnification Formula | 放大倍数计算公式
The magnification formula relates the size of an image to the actual size of the object. It is fundamental for microscopy work and interpreting biological drawings.
放大倍数公式把图像大小与物体的实际大小联系起来，是显微镜操作和理解生物绘图的基础。
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
放大倍数 = 图像尺寸 ÷ 实际尺寸
Rearranging the formula gives two equally important forms:
公式变形后得到另外两个同样重要的形式：
- I = M × A (Image size = Magnification × Actual size) | I = M × A（图像大小 = 放大倍数 × 实际大小）
- A = I ÷ M (Actual size = Image size ÷ Magnification) | A = I ÷ M（实际大小 = 图像大小 ÷ 放大倍数）
All quantities must be in the same unit – usually millimetres (mm) or micrometres (µm). 1 mm = 1000 µm.
所有量必须使用相同单位——通常是毫米（mm）或微米（µm）。1 毫米 = 1000 微米。
2. Photosynthesis Word Equation | 光合作用文字方程
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and some other organisms convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. The word equation summarises the raw materials and products.
光合作用是植物和其他一些生物将光能转化为储存在葡萄糖中的化学能的过程。文字方程概括了反应物和产物。
Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气
The reaction requires light energy trapped by chlorophyll. Oxygen is released as a by‑product.
该反应需要叶绿素捕获的光能。氧气作为副产物释放出来。
3. Photosynthesis Balanced Chemical Equation | 光合作用配平化学方程
The balanced chemical equation shows the exact number of molecules involved, linking the word equation to quantitative reasoning.
配平后的化学方程展示了参与反应的具体分子数，将文字方程与定量推理联系起来。
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
This means six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen. Sunlight and chlorophyll are required but do not appear as reactants in the equation.
意思是六分子二氧化碳和六分子水生成一分子葡萄糖和六分子氧气。需要阳光和叶绿素，但它们不作为反应物出现在方程中。
4. Aerobic Respiration Word Equation | 有氧呼吸文字方程
Aerobic respiration is the process that releases energy from glucose in the presence of oxygen. It occurs continuously in the mitochondria of most living cells.
有氧呼吸是有氧气存在时从葡萄糖中释放能量的过程，在大多数活细胞的线粒体中持续进行。
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water (+ energy)
葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水（+ 能量）
Energy is released in the form of ATP, which fuels cellular activities such as muscle contraction, active transport, and growth.
能量以 ATP 形式释放，为肌肉收缩、主动运输和生长等细胞活动提供动力。
5. Aerobic Respiration Balanced Chemical Equation | 有氧呼吸配平化学方程
The balanced equation for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis, highlighting the complementary relationship between the two processes.
有氧呼吸的配平方程基本上是光合作用的逆反应，突显了这两个过程互补的关系。
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
One molecule of glucose reacts with six molecules of oxygen to produce six molecules each of carbon dioxide and water. The energy released is used to synthesise approximately 38 molecules of ATP per glucose.
一分子葡萄糖与六分子氧气反应，生成各六分子二氧化碳和水。释放的能量每分子葡萄糖约合成 38 分子 ATP。
6. Anaerobic Respiration in Animals and Yeast | 动物与酵母的无氧呼吸
When oxygen is limited or absent, cells can respire anaerobically. The products differ between animal cells and yeast, making this a key comparison in the GCSE syllabus.
当氧气不足或缺乏时，细胞可进行无氧呼吸。动物细胞与酵母的产物不同，这是 GCSE 考纲中重要的比较点。
| Organism / 生物 | Word Equation / 文字方程 | Key Product / 关键产物 |
|---|---|---|
| Animals (e.g. muscle cells) / 动物（如肌细胞） | Glucose → Lactic acid (+ energy) 葡萄糖 → 乳酸（+ 能量） |
Lactic acid / 乳酸 |
| Yeast / 酵母 | Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide (+ energy) 葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + 二氧化碳（+ 能量） |
Ethanol / 乙醇 |
Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic respiration. In animals, lactic acid build‑up causes muscle fatigue and must be oxidised later. In yeast, the ethanol is used in brewing and bread‑making.
无氧呼吸每分子葡萄糖释放的能量远少于有氧呼吸。动物体内乳酸堆积导致肌肉疲劳，需后续氧化分解。酵母产生的乙醇则用于酿酒和面包制作。
7. Enzyme Activity and the Lock‑and‑Key Model | 酶活性与锁钥模型
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up. The lock‑and‑key model explains their specificity.
酶是生物催化剂，能加快化学反应而自身不被消耗。锁钥模型解释了酶的专一性。
In this model, the substrate fits precisely into the active site of the enzyme, just as a key fits a lock. Once the enzyme‑substrate complex is formed, the reaction takes place, and the products are released. The active site remains unchanged and can bind another substrate molecule.
在这个模型中，底物恰好嵌入酶的活性位点，就像钥匙插入锁孔。酶—底物复合物形成后发生反应，产物被释放。活性位点保持不变，可再结合其他底物分子。
The rate of an enzyme‑controlled reaction can be calculated using:
酶控反应速率可用下式计算：
Rate = Change in product or substrate concentration ÷ Time
速率 = 产物或底物浓度变化量 ÷ 时间
Factors affecting enzyme activity include temperature, pH, and substrate concentration. Denaturation occurs when the active site loses its shape permanently due to extreme heat or pH.
影响酶活性的因素有温度、pH 和底物浓度。极端高温或 pH 会导致活性位点永久变形，即变性。
8. Diffusion and Surface Area to Volume Ratio | 扩散与表面积体积比
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, down a concentration gradient. It does not require energy and is essential for gas exchange and nutrient uptake.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区沿浓度梯度净移动到低浓度区的过程，不消耗能量，对气体交换和营养吸收至关重要。
The rate of diffusion is affected by the surface area available, the concentration gradient, temperature, and the distance over which diffusion occurs. This is summarised algebraically in Fick’s law (simplified form):
扩散速率受表面积、浓度梯度、温度和扩散距离的影响，可用简化的菲克定律概括：
Rate of diffusion ∝ (Surface area × Concentration difference) ÷ Thickness of membrane
扩散速率 ∝ （表面积 × 浓度差） ÷ 膜的厚度
The surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) is critical in biology. As an organism or cell increases in size, its SA:V decreases, making diffusion less efficient. This explains why large organisms need specialised exchange surfaces and transport systems.
表面积与体积比（SA:V）在生物学中很关键。随着生物体或细胞体积增大，SA:V 下降，扩散效率变低，这解释了为什么大型生物需要特化的交换表面和运输系统。
9. Osmosis and Water Potential | 渗透作用与水势
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution). Water potential is a measure of the tendency of water to move from one place to another.
渗透作用是水分子通过部分透性膜从水势较高（稀溶液）的区域扩散到水势较低（浓溶液）的区域。水势是衡量水移动趋势的量度。
Key terms to remember:
需记住的关键术语：
- Hypertonic – solution with lower water potential than the cell (water leaves cell)
高渗 – 水势比细胞低的溶液（水出细胞） - Hypotonic – solution with higher water potential than the cell (water enters cell)
低渗 – 水势比细胞高的溶液（水进细胞） - Isotonic – solutions with equal water potential (no net movement)
等渗 – 水势相等的溶液（无净移动）
In plant cells, turgor pressure develops when water enters by osmosis, keeping the cell rigid. Plasmolysis occurs when the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall in hypertonic conditions.
在植物细胞中，当水通过渗透进入时产生膨压，使细胞坚挺。在高渗条件下，细胞膜与细胞壁分离，发生质壁分离。
10. DNA Complementary Base Pairing Rule | DNA 互补碱基配对法则
DNA is a double‑stranded molecule in which the bases on one strand pair with bases on the opposite strand through hydrogen bonding. The pairing follows a strict rule known as Chargaff's rule.
DNA 是双链分子，一条链上的碱基通过氢键与对侧链上的碱基配对。配对遵循严格的规则，即查加夫法则。
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) – A–T
Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) – G–C
腺嘌呤（A）与胸腺嘧啶（T）配对——A–T
鸟嘌呤（G）与胞嘧啶（C）配对——G–C
This means the percentage of A equals the percentage of T, and the percentage of G equals the percentage of C. The sequence of bases codes for amino acids and ultimately determines the structure of proteins.
这意味着 A 的百分比等于 T 的百分比，G 的百分比等于 C 的百分比。碱基序列编码氨基酸，最终决定蛋白质的结构。
11. Food Tests: Reagents and Expected Results | 食物测试：试剂与预期结果
Qualitative food tests are a standard practical skill. Recognising the reagents and positive colour changes is essential for exam success.
食物定性测试是一项标准的实验技能。识别试剂和阳性颜色变化对考试成功至关重要。
| Nutrient / 营养物质 | Reagent / 试剂 | Positive Result / 阳性结果 |
|---|---|---|
| Starch / 淀粉 | Iodine solution / 碘液 | Blue‑black / 蓝黑色 |
| Reducing sugars / 还原糖 | Benedict's solution (heat) / 班氏试剂（加热） | Brick‑red / 砖红色 |
| Protein / 蛋白质 | Biuret reagent / 双缩脲试剂 | Purple / 紫色 |
| Lipids (fats) / 脂质 | Ethanol + water (emulsion test) / 乙醇 + 水（乳剂实验） | Cloudy white emulsion / 乳白色浑浊 |
Remember that for the Benedict’s test, the colour change ranges from blue (no sugar) through green, yellow, and orange to brick‑red, depending on the concentration of reducing sugar.
请记住，班氏试剂测试的颜色变化从蓝色（无糖）到绿色、黄色、橙色直至砖红色，取决于还原糖的浓度。
12. Mitosis Stages and the Cell Cycle | 有丝分裂阶段与细胞周期
Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells. It is used for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. The sequence of stages can be remembered with the mnemonic PMAT.
有丝分裂是一种产生两个遗传上完全相同的子细胞的细胞分裂方式，用于生长、修复和无性繁殖。可用助记符 PMAT 记住其阶段顺序。
The cell cycle consists of interphase and the mitotic phase:
细胞周期包括间期和分裂期：
- Interphase: DNA replicates, chromosomes not visible.
间期：DNA 复制，染色体不可见。 - Prophase: Chromosomes condense and become visible, nucleus breaks down.
前期：染色体浓缩并可见，核膜解体。 - Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell.
中期：染色体排列在细胞赤道板。 - Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles.
后期：姐妹染色单体被拉向相反的细胞极。 - Telophase: New nuclei form around each set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) follows.
末期：每组染色体周围形成新核膜。随后发生胞质分裂（细胞质分裂）。
No formula is used as such, but the concept is fundamental for understanding growth and cancer (uncontrolled mitosis).
此处虽无直接公式，但这一概念对于理解生长和癌症（不受控的有丝分裂）至关重要。
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