📚 Year 10 AQA Sociology: Key Terms Memory Guide | AQA 社会学 Year 10 关键术语速记指南
Mastering the essential terminology is the first step to success in AQA GCSE Sociology. This guide covers the most frequently examined terms across the Year 10 topics: families, education, research methods, and sociological approaches. Each section presents key concepts with clear definitions, paired with their Chinese equivalents, plus memory tips to help the vocabulary stick. Use this as a quick-reference revision tool throughout the course.
掌握关键术语是学好 AQA GCSE 社会学的第一步。本指南涵盖 Year 10 最常考的主题词汇：家庭、教育、研究方法和社会学视角。每个小节都用清晰的定义呈现核心概念，并配有中文对应词和记忆技巧，帮助你牢牢记住这些术语。你可以将本指南作为贯穿整个课程的快速复习工具。
1. Core Sociological Concepts | 社会学核心概念
Sociology is the systematic study of society, social groups, and the patterns of human interaction. It investigates how social structures shape individual behaviour.
社会学 是对社会、社会群体以及人类互动模式的系统研究，探讨社会结构如何塑造个人行为。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that members of a society are expected to follow in particular situations. They can be formal (laws) or informal (customs).
规范 是特定情况下社会成员应当遵守的不成文行为规则，分为正式规范（法律）与非正式规范（习俗）。
Values are the deeply held beliefs about what is desirable, good, and worthwhile. They often underpin the norms of a society.
价值观 是关于什么是值得、美好和有价值的深层信念，通常是社会规范的基础。
Culture refers to the way of life of a particular group, including its language, beliefs, norms, values, and material objects.
文化 指特定群体的生活方式，包括其语言、信仰、规范、价值观和物质物品。
Socialisation is the lifelong process of learning the culture of a society. Primary socialisation occurs in the family; secondary socialisation takes place in wider institutions such as schools and the media.
社会化 是学习社会文化的终身过程。初级社会化发生在家庭中，次级社会化则在学校和媒体等更广泛的机构中进行。
Role is the expected pattern of behaviour associated with a particular social status, for example the role of a teacher or a parent.
角色 是与特定社会地位相关联的行为期望模式，比如教师或父母的角色。
Social control describes the methods used by society to ensure individuals conform to norms. It can be formal (police, courts) or informal (peer pressure, family).
社会控制 指社会用来确保个人遵守规范的方法，分为正式控制（警察、法庭）和非正式控制（同伴压力、家庭）。
2. Families: Key Terms | 家庭相关核心术语
Nuclear family – a two‑generation family unit consisting of a married or cohabiting couple and their dependent children. Sociologists debate whether this is still the 'typical' family form in Britain today.
核心家庭 —— 由一对已婚或同居伴侣及其未成年子女组成的两代人家庭单元。社会学家对其是否仍是当今英国的“典型”家庭形态存在争论。
Extended family – a family that goes beyond the nuclear unit to include grandparents, aunts, uncles, and other relatives, often living nearby or together.
扩展家庭 —— 超出核心单元、涵盖祖父母、姑姑、叔叔等亲属的家庭，通常住在附近或共同生活。
Reconstituted family (step‑family) – formed when partners in a new relationship bring children from previous relationships together. This type of family has increased with rising divorce rates.
重组家庭（继亲家庭） —— 新伴侣各自带着前段关系中的孩子组建的家庭，随着离婚率上升，这种家庭形式日益普遍。
Lone‑parent family – a single parent raising one or more children without a partner's support. The majority of lone‑parent families are headed by women.
单亲家庭 —— 一位家长独自抚养一个或多个孩子，大多数单亲家庭以女性为主。
Cohabitation – when an unmarried couple lives together in a sexual relationship. Cohabitation has become more common, partly because of changing social attitudes.
同居 —— 未婚伴侣以类似婚姻的关系共同生活。随着社会态度转变，同居日益普遍。
Symmetrical family – a concept developed by Young and Willmott, describing a nuclear family where the husband and wife share domestic work, decision‑making, and leisure time more equally.
对称家庭 —— 由杨和威尔莫特提出的概念，描述夫妻在家务、决策和休闲时间上更加平等分担的核心家庭。
Patriarchy – a social system in which men hold disproportionate power in the household, the workplace, and wider society. Feminist sociologists use this term to analyse gender inequality.
父权制 —— 一种男性在家庭、职场和更广泛社会中掌握不成比例权力的社会体系，女性主义社会学家用此分析性别不平等。
Conjugal roles – the roles played by a husband and wife within the marriage. Joint conjugal roles mean tasks are shared; segregated roles mean a clear division between 'male' and 'female' tasks.
婚姻角色 —— 夫妻在婚姻中承担的角色。联合婚姻角色指共同分担任务，隔离婚姻角色则指“男性”和“女性”任务有明显分工。
3. Education: Key Terms | 教育相关核心术语
Formal curriculum – the planned set of subjects and knowledge officially taught in schools, such as mathematics, science, and English.
正式课程 —— 学校有计划地教授的一系列科目和知识，如数学、科学和英语。
Hidden curriculum – the informal lessons learned in school that are not part of the official timetable. This includes values such as obedience, punctuality, and respect for authority, which prepare students for the workplace.
隐性课程 —— 非正式课表之外在学校学到的内容，包括服从、守时和尊重权威等价值观，为学生进入职场做好准备。
Labelling – the process of attaching a characteristic, often negative, to a student on the basis of their appearance, behaviour, or background. Labels can become self‑fulfilling prophecies.
标签化 —— 基于学生的外貌、行为或背景赋予其特征（常为负面）的过程，标签可能成为自我实现的预言。
Self‑fulfilling prophecy – when a prediction about a student directly or indirectly causes itself to come true. If a teacher expects a pupil to fail, the pupil may internalise this belief and underperform.
自我实现的预言 —— 对一个学生的预测直接或间接地使该预测成为现实。若教师预期某学生失败，该生可能将这种看法内化而表现不佳。
Streaming / Setting – grouping students by ability for all subjects (streaming) or for specific subjects (setting). Sociologists argue streaming often reinforces existing inequalities.
能力分班 / 学科分组 —— 根据能力将学生分入不同班级学习所有科目（能力分班）或特定科目（学科分组）。社会学家认为能力分班常会强化已有的不平等。
Material deprivation – a lack of physical resources such as income, adequate housing, or educational materials, which can severely limit a child's school performance.
物质匮乏 —— 缺乏收入、适当住房或学习资料等物质资源，这会严重限制孩子的学业表现。
Cultural deprivation – the idea that some working‑class families may not have the culture, attitudes, or language skills that schools expect, placing their children at a disadvantage.
文化匮乏 —— 认为一些工人阶级家庭可能缺乏学校所期望的文化、态度或语言技能，从而使子女处于劣势。
Marketisation of education – the process of introducing market forces into the school system, such as league tables, competition between schools, and parental choice. AQA students need to understand the impact of this on different social groups.
教育市场化 —— 将市场机制引入学校体系，例如排名表、校际竞争和家长选择。AQA 考生需要理解其对不同社会群体的影响。
4. Social Stratification: Key Terms | 社会分层核心术语
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes, or other divisions based on factors such as wealth, power, and prestige.
社会分层 是根据财富、权力和声望等因素将个人划分为不同社会阶级、种姓或其他层级的等级体系。
Social class – a group of people sharing a similar economic position in society, often defined by occupation, income, and lifestyle. In the UK, sociologists often distinguish between working class, middle class, and upper class.
社会阶级 —— 社会中经济地位相似的一群人，常以职业、收入及生活方式界定。在英国，社会学家通常区分工人阶级、中产阶级和上层阶级。
Social mobility – the movement of individuals or groups between different social positions. This can be upward (moving to a higher class) or downward, and can occur within one lifetime (intragenerational) or across generations (intergenerational).
社会流动 —— 个人或群体在不同社会地位之间的流动，分为向上流动或向下流动，可在同一代生命中发生（代内流动）或跨代发生（代际流动）。
Life chances – a term introduced by Max Weber referring to the opportunities an individual has for improving their quality of life, such as access to education, healthcare, and housing. These are strongly influenced by class.
生活机会 —— 马克斯·韦伯提出的概念，指个人改善生活质量的机会，例如接受教育、获得医疗和住房的机会，深受阶级影响。
Poverty: absolute and relative – absolute poverty means a severe lack of basic human needs such as food and shelter; relative poverty means having significantly fewer resources than the average standard in a given society.
贫困：绝对与相对 —— 绝对贫困指严重缺乏食物和住所等基本人类需求；相对贫困指拥有的资源显著低于特定社会的平均水平。
Welfare state – the system of government programmes designed to protect citizens from economic hardship, including benefits, state pensions, and the National Health Service. Its role in reducing stratification is often debated.
福利国家 —— 政府为保护公民免受经济困境而设计的制度体系，包括福利金、国家养老金和国民保健服务，其在减少分层方面的作用常被讨论。
5. Research Methods: Key Terms | 研究方法核心术语
Primary data – information collected first‑hand by the sociologist for their own research purpose. Examples include questionnaires, interviews, and observations.
一手数据 —— 社会学家为实现自己的研究目的而亲自收集的信息，如问卷、访谈和观察。
Secondary data – data that already exists, collected by someone else for a different purpose. Examples are official statistics, historical documents, and previous sociological studies.
二手数据 —— 已存在、由他人为其他目的而收集的数据，如官方统计、历史文献和已有的社会学研究。
Quantitative data – information in numerical form, such as statistics on exam results or crime rates. It is often used to identify patterns and correlations.
定量数据 —— 数字形式的信息，如考试成绩或犯罪率统计，通常用于识别模式和相关性。
Qualitative data – non‑numerical information that provides depth and insight, such as reasons, opinions, and emotions. It is typically gathered through open‑ended interviews or observations.
定性数据 —— 提供深度和见解的非数字信息，如原因、意见和情感，通常通过开放式访谈或观察收集。
Validity – the extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure. A valid study gives a true picture of the social phenomenon being investigated.
有效性 —— 研究方法测量其声称测量的事物的程度，有效的研究能够真实呈现所调查的社会现象。
Reliability – the consistency of a research method. If a study is reliable, repeating it with the same group would produce similar results.
可靠性 —— 研究方法的一致性。如果一项研究是可靠的，对同一群体重复研究会得到相似的结果。
Sampling – the process of selecting a smaller group from the target population to participate in the research. Common sampling methods include random, stratified, and snowball sampling.
抽样 —— 从目标人群中选取一个较小群体参与研究的过程，常见的抽样方法包括随机抽样、分层抽样和滚雪球抽样。
Ethical issues – moral considerations that researchers must address, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and protection from harm. The British Sociological Association provides ethical guidelines.
伦理问题 —— 研究者必须处理的道德考量，如知情同意、保密和无伤害原则，英国社会学协会提供了伦理指南。
6. Key Sociological Perspectives | 主要社会学视角
Functionalism sees society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability and social order. It compares society to a biological organism where each institution, such as the family or education, performs a specific function.
功能主义 将社会视为一个由相互关联的部分组成的系统，共同维持稳定和社会秩序。它把社会比作生物有机体，每个机构（如家庭或教育）承担特定功能。
Marxism is a conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx. It argues that society is divided into two main classes – the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers) – and that conflict between them drives social change.
马克思主义 是基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突理论，认为社会分为两大阶级——资产阶级（所有者）和无产阶级（工人）——他们之间的冲突推动社会变革。
Feminism focuses on gender inequality in society. Feminists study how patriarchal structures shape the experiences of women and criticise traditional gender roles in the family, workplace, and education.
女性主义 关注社会中的性别不平等，研究父权结构如何塑造女性的经历，并批评家庭、职场和教育中的传统性别角色。
Interactionism (or interpretivism) takes a micro‑approach, studying how individuals create meaning through everyday social interaction. Unlike functionalism and Marxism, it does not focus on large‑scale social structures.
互动论（或解释主义）采用微观视角，研究个体如何通过日常社会互动创造意义。与功能主义和马克思主义不同，它不关注大规模社会结构。
Consensus vs. conflict theories: Functionalism is a consensus theory that assumes shared norms and values. Marxism and feminism are conflict theories that highlight power struggles between different groups.
共识与冲突理论：功能主义是一种共识理论，假设存在共同的规范和价值观。马克思主义和女性主义是冲突理论，强调不同群体之间的权力斗争。
7. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Primary socialisation takes place in the early years of life, mainly within the family. It teaches children the basic values, language, and behaviours expected in society.
初期社会化 发生在生命的最初几年，主要在家庭中进行，向儿童传授社会期望的基本价值观、语言和行为方式。
Secondary socialisation occurs throughout later childhood and adult life through institutions such as schools, peer groups, religion, workplaces, and the media. It fine‑tunes the social learning begun in the family.
次级社会化 发生在童年后期及成年生活中，通过学校、同伴群体、宗教、工作场所和媒体等机构进行，进一步细化从家庭开始的社会学习。
Agents of socialisation are the individuals, groups, and institutions that carry out socialisation. The main agents are family, education, peer groups, mass media, religion, and the workplace.
社会化媒介 是执行社会化的个人、群体和机构，主要媒介包括家庭、教育、同伴群体、大众媒体、宗教和工作场所。
Social identity is an individual's sense of who they are based on their membership in various social groups, such as class, gender, ethnicity, nationality, and subculture.
社会身份 是个体基于其在多个社会群体中的归属感而形成的自我认知，例如阶级、性别、族裔、国籍和亚文化。
Peer group – a social group whose members share similar interests, social position, and usually age. Peer pressure can powerfully reinforce norms or encourage deviant behaviour.
同伴群体 —— 成员具有相似兴趣、社会地位且通常年龄相仿的社会群体，同伴压力可以有力地强化规范或鼓动越轨行为。
Mass media as an agent of socialisation transmits images, values, and stereotypes that shape how we see the world. It is often criticised for reinforcing gender and ethnic stereotypes.
大众媒体 作为社会化媒介传递图像、价值观和刻板印象，塑造我们看待世界的方式，常被批评强化了性别和族裔刻板印象。
8. Power and Authority in Sociology | 社会学中的权力与权威
Power is the ability of an individual or group to get their own way despite resistance from others. It can be exercised through force, persuasion, or authority.
权力 指个人或群体在他人抵抗的情况下仍能实现自身目的的能力，可通过强制、说服或权威来行使。
Authority is legitimate power – power that is accepted as right and reasonable by those over whom it is exercised. Max Weber identified three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal‑rational.
权威 是合法化的权力，即被权力对象认可为正确和合理的权力。马克斯·韦伯区分了三种权威类型：传统型、魅力型和法理型。
Social class and power – sociologists argue that the upper class and parts of the middle class have disproportionate influence over political decisions and the economy, while the working class often has less access to power.
社会阶级与权力 —— 社会学家认为上层阶级及部分中产阶级对政治决策和经济拥有不成比例的影响力，而工人阶级往往较难拥有权力。
State is the political institution that holds the legitimate monopoly on the use of physical force within a given territory. It includes government, the civil service, the police, and the judiciary.
国家 是在特定领土内合法垄断使用武力的政治机构，包括政府、公务员系统、警察和司法机构。
Social exclusion refers to the way certain groups are pushed to the margins of society and prevented from participating fully in normal activities. It is linked to poverty, discrimination, and lack of power.
社会排斥 指某些群体被推向社会的边缘，无法充分参与正常活动，与贫困、歧视和权力缺失密切相关。
9. Quick Memory Aids for Key Terms | 关键术语速记表
Use this reference table to quickly recall the essentials. Each term is paired with a short memory hook that matches the AQA exam language.
使用下表快速回顾核心术语，每个术语都配有一条简短的记忆线索，与 AQA 考试用语一致。
| English term | 中文术语 | Memory hook / 记忆线索 |
|---|---|---|
| Norms | 规范 | Normal expectations in specific situations / 特定情况下的“正常”期望 |
| Cultural deprivation | 文化匮乏 | Culture that doesn't fit the school's culture / 文化与学校文化不匹配 |
| Self‑fulfilling prophecy | 自我实现的预言 | What you believe comes true / 你相信什么，什么就会成真 |
| Patriarchy | 父权制 | Male rule – 'father' system / 男性统治——“父亲”体系 |
| Validity | 有效性 | True picture of reality / 真实反映现实 |
| Reliability | 可靠性 | Repeatable results / 可重复的结果 |
| Streaming | 能力分班 | Permanent ability groups – think of a river stream that doesn't mix / 永久能力组——像不混合的河流 |
| Symmetrical family | 对称家庭 | Roles evenly split, like a mirror image / 角色均匀分配，如同镜像 |
Use active recall by covering the definitions and trying to explain each term in your own words. Combine these hooks with exam‑style questions for the best retention.
遮盖定义，尝试用自己的话解释每个术语，进行主动回忆。将这些记忆线索与考试风格题目结合使用，可以达到最佳记忆效果。
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