📚 Year 10 AQA Sociology: Formula & Theorem Quick-Reference Handbook | AQA 社会学公式定理速查手册
This quick-reference handbook brings together the essential formulas and theoretical theorems you need to master for Year 10 AQA Sociology. From calculating averages and percentages in your research methods work to recalling the core propositions of Marx, Weber and labelling theorists, each entry is presented as a clear equation or principle alongside concise explanations. Use these pages to revise key ideas, sharpen your exam skills and link abstract concepts to real-life sociological data.
本速查手册汇集了 Year 10 AQA 社会学必须掌握的核心公式与理论定理。从研究方法中的平均数、百分比计算，到马克思、韦伯和标签理论家提出的根本命题，每一项都以清晰的等式或原则呈现，并配以简明解释。利用这些内容复习关键思想、强化应试技巧，并将抽象概念与现实生活中的社会学数据联系起来。
1. Mean, Median and Mode Formulas | 平均数、中位数和众数公式
In sociological research, measures of central tendency summarise typical values in a dataset. The three main measures are mean, median and mode, each useful for different types of data.
在社会学研究中，集中趋势量数用来概括数据集的典型值。三种主要量数是平均数、中位数和众数，每种适用于不同类型的数据。
The mean, often called the average, is found by adding all values together and dividing by the number of cases. It is sensitive to extreme scores.
Mean = (Σx) / n
平均数（通常简称均值）是将所有数值相加后除以个案数得出。它对极端值敏感。
The median is the middle value when all data are arranged in order. It splits the distribution into two equal halves and is unaffected by outliers.
Median = Middle value of ordered dataset
中位数是将所有数据按顺序排列后正中间的值，它将分布等分为两半，不受异常值影响。
The mode is the value that occurs most frequently. A set of data may have no mode, one mode or more than one mode.
Mode = Most frequent value
众数是最常出现的值。一组数据可能没有众数、有一个众数或多个众数。
2. Percentage and Percentage Change | 百分比与百分比变化
Percentages allow sociologists to standardise data and compare groups of different sizes. A percentage expresses a part as a fraction of 100.
Percentage = (Part / Whole) × 100
百分比使社会学家能够将数据标准化，并对不同规模的群体进行比较。百分比将部分表示为占整体100%的份额。
To measure how much a figure has increased or decreased over time, we use percentage change. This is vital when analysing trends in crime rates, educational achievement or family structures.
Percentage Change = ((New Value - Old Value) / Old Value) × 100
要衡量某个数据随时间增加或减少了多少，我们使用百分比变化。这在分析犯罪率、教育成就或家庭结构趋势时至关重要。
3. Ratios and Rates | 比率与比率
Ratios and rates help sociologists express the relationship between two quantities or the frequency of an event relative to the population.
比率和比率有助于社会学家表达两个数量之间的关系，或某一事件相对于总人口的发生频率。
A ratio compares the sizes of two groups, for example the dependency ratio. A rate expresses the number of occurrences per a given unit of population, often per 1,000 people.
Rate = (Number of events / Total population) × 1,000
比率比较两个群体的大小，例如抚养比。比率表示单位人口中事件的发生次数，通常以每千人计算。
In GCSE sociology you may encounter birth rates, death rates and crime rates, all of which follow this general formula.
在 GCSE 社会学中你会遇到出生率、死亡率和犯罪率，它们都遵循这个通用公式。
4. Marx's Theorem of Class Conflict | 马克思的阶级冲突定理
Marx argued that the engine of history is class struggle. Society is divided into two main classes defined by their relationship to the means of production.
Class Conflict = Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat → Social Revolution
马克思认为阶级斗争是历史的动力。社会分为两大阶级，由它们与生产资料的关系界定。
The bourgeoisie own capital and employ workers; the proletariat sell their labour. Exploitation and alienation create a contradiction that ultimately leads to revolutionary change.
资产阶级拥有资本并雇佣工人；无产阶级出卖劳动力。剥削与异化产生的矛盾最终导致革命性变迁。
5. Weber's Multidimensional Stratification Theorem | 韦伯的多维分层定理
Weber rejected a purely economic view of inequality. He proposed that social stratification should be understood through three interrelated dimensions.
Social Stratification = Class + Status + Power
韦伯反对纯粹从经济角度看待不平等。他提出必须通过三个相互关联的维度来理解社会分层。
Class refers to economic position, status to social prestige or lifestyle, and power to the ability to influence decisions even against resistance. This theorem helps explain why a wealthy individual may lack social honour or political influence.
阶级指经济地位，地位指社会声望或生活方式，权力指即使遇到抗拒也能影响决策的能力。这条定理有助于解释为什么富有的人可能缺乏社会荣誉或政治影响力。
6. Functionalist Education Theorem | 功能主义教育定理
Functionalists see education as a vital institution that maintains social order and prepares individuals for their future roles.
Education → Value Consensus + Social Solidarity + Role Allocation
功能主义者认为教育是维持社会秩序、为个体未来角色做准备的关键制度。
Through shared norms, subjects like history and citizenship create a collective conscience. Education also sifts and sorts pupils according to their talents, a process that matches abilities to occupational positions.
通过共同规范，历史和公民等学科打造集体意识。教育还根据天赋对学生进行筛选和分类，这一过程将能力与职业相匹配。
7. Feminist Theorem of Patriarchy | 女权主义父权制定理
Feminist sociologists identify patriarchy — a system of male dominance — as the root cause of gender inequality across all spheres of life.
Patriarchy = Male Dominance → Gender Inequality
女性主义社会学家认定父权制——一种男性支配的体系——是生活各个领域性别不平等的根源。
From the family to the workplace and the education system, patriarchal structures privilege men and subordinate women. This theorem underpins explanations of gendered subject choices, the wage gap and domestic division of labour.
从家庭到职场和教育体系，父权结构赋予男性特权并使女性处于从属地位。这一底层定理为解释性别化学科选择、工资差距和家务分工提供了支撑。
8. Labelling Theorem | 标签定理
Howard Becker argued that deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions by others.
Deviance = Social Reaction → Label Internalisation
霍华德·贝克尔认为越轨并非行为本身的属性，而是他人运用规则和惩罚的后果。
Once a label is attached — 'troublemaker', 'criminal' or 'low-achiever' — it can become a master status that alters self-concept and invites further deviance. This theorem is widely used in studies of education, crime and youth subcultures.
一旦被贴上“捣蛋鬼”“罪犯”或“后进生”的标签，它就可能成为主要身份，改变自我认知并引发更多越轨行为。这一定理被广泛用于教育、犯罪与青年亚文化研究。
9. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Theorem | 自我实现预言定理
Building on labelling, the self-fulfilling prophecy describes how a false definition of a situation can evoke behaviour that makes the originally false conception come true.
SFP = Prediction + Expectation → Behaviour → Confirmation
在标签理论基础上，自我实现预言描述了对情境的错误界定如何唤起行为，使原本错误的观念成真。
A classic educational example is when a teacher labels some students as 'bright' and others as 'less able'. Differential treatment follows; the students internalise expectations and perform accordingly, thus confirming the label.
教育中的一个经典例子是教师给一些学生贴上“聪明”、另一些学生贴上“能力较差”的标签。差别对待随之而来；学生内化期望并做出相应的表现，从而验证了标签。
10. Ethical Principles in Sociological Research | 社会学研究伦理原则
Sociologists must follow strict ethical guidelines to protect participants and uphold the integrity of research. These principles can be expressed as a formula for ethical practice.
ical Research = Informed Consent + Confidentiality + Avoidance of Harm + Right to Withdraw
社会学家必须遵守严格的伦理准则，以保护研究对象并维护研究的完整性。这些原则可表达为伦理实践的公式。
Informed consent means participants agree to take part knowing the aims and procedures. Confidentiality requires anonymising data. Avoidance of harm addresses both psychological and physical wellbeing. The right to withdraw allows participants to leave at any time without penalty.
知情同意意味着研究对象了解研究目的和步骤后同意参与。保密要求对数据进行匿名处理。避免伤害涉及心理和生理两方面福祉。退出权允许参与者随时退出而不会受到任何不利影响。
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