📚 Year 10 AQA Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | AQA 心理学公式定理速查手册
Mastering Year 10 AQA Psychology means getting to grips not only with theories and studies but also with the essential formulas and principles that underpin research methods and key explanations of behaviour. This quick reference handbook brings together the most important statistical formulas, experimental design principles, and fundamental ‘theorems’ (well‑established theoretical models) you need to revise. Use it to check your understanding, refresh your memory before a test, or simply keep the core ideas straight.
掌握 Year 10 AQA 心理学不仅需要熟悉各种理论和研究，还需要牢固把握支撑研究方法和核心行为解释的基本公式与定理。这份速查手册汇集了你必须复习的最重要的统计公式、实验设计原则以及基本的“定理”（即被广泛认可的理论模型）。用它来检查理解程度、考前温习，或只是帮助你把核心概念理清楚。
1. Measures of Central Tendency | 集中趋势的度量
The mean is the arithmetic average of a data set. It is calculated by summing all the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
均值是一组数据的算术平均数，计算方法是将所有数值相加后除以数据的个数。
Mean = Σx ÷ n
where Σx is the sum of all values and n is the number of values.
其中 Σx 是所有数值的总和，n 是数值的个数。
The median is the middle value when scores are arranged in numerical order. If there is an even number of scores, take the mean of the two middle numbers.
中位数是将分数按数值顺序排列后位于中间的那个数值。如果分数个数为偶数，则取中间两个数的均值。
The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a data set. A set may have one mode, more than one mode, or no mode at all.
众数是一组数据中出现频率最高的数值。一组数据可能有一个众数、多个众数或根本没有众数。
2. Measures of Dispersion | 离散程度的度量
The range measures the spread of scores. It is the difference between the highest and the lowest values.
全距衡量分数的分布范围，即最大值与最小值之间的差值。
Range = Highest score − Lowest score
A larger range indicates greater variability, while a smaller range suggests scores are clustered more closely together.
全距越大说明变异性越高，越小则表明分数比较集中。
For GCSE, you are not required to calculate standard deviation mathematically, but you should understand that it is a more precise measure of spread that takes every score into account. A low standard deviation means data points are close to the mean; a high standard deviation means they are spread out.
在 GCSE 阶段你不需要动手计算标准差，但要理解它是一种更精确的离散度量，考虑了每一个分数。标准差小表示数据点聚集在均值附近；标准差大表示数据点分布较分散。
3. Normal Distribution | 正态分布
Many psychological variables (such as IQ scores or reaction times in a large sample) follow a normal distribution. Its key features are:
许多心理学变量（例如大样本中的智商分数或反应时）服从正态分布。其主要特征包括：
The mean, median and mode are all at the centre of the distribution.
均值、中位数和众数都位于分布的中心。
The curve is symmetrical and bell‑shaped.
曲线呈对称的钟形。
Approximately 68% of scores lie within one standard deviation of the mean; about 95% within two standard deviations.
约 68% 的分数落在距均值一个标准差的范围内；约 95% 落在两个标准差的范围内。
This principle helps psychologists decide whether a particular score is typical or extreme.
这一原理帮助心理学家判断某个分数是典型的还是极端的。
4. Experimental Design Principles | 实验设计原则
In an experiment, the aim is to establish a cause‑and‑effect relationship. Three principles are central:
实验的目的是确立因果关系。三个原则至关重要：
Standardisation – Keeping the procedure the same for all participants so that any differences in the dependent variable can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable.
标准化 —— 让所有参与者经历相同的程序，这样因变量的任何差异才能归因于自变量的操控。
Control – Holding extraneous variables constant or removing them, so they do not become confounding variables that distort the results.
控制 —— 将额外变量保持不变或消除，避免它们成为混淆变量而干扰结果。
Random allocation – Assigning participants to conditions truly by chance, which helps spread individual differences evenly across groups.
随机分配 —— 通过真正的随机方式将参与者分入不同条件，有助于使个体差异在各组间均匀分布。
5. Ethical Guidelines (BPS Code of Ethics) | 伦理准则 (英国心理学会伦理规范)
The British Psychological Society (BPS) sets out ethical principles that all psychological research must follow. Think of these as the ‘rules’ or ‘theorems’ of responsible research.
英国心理学会（BPS）制定了所有心理学研究必须遵循的伦理原则。你可以把它们看作负责任研究的“规则”或“定理”。
Informed consent – Participants must freely agree to take part, knowing the aims and procedures where possible.
知情同意 —— 参与者必须在了解研究目的和程序的前提下自由同意参加。
Deception – Should be avoided unless scientifically justified, and then debriefing is essential.
欺骗 —— 除非有科学上的理由，否则应当避免，而且事后必须进行解释说明。
Protection from harm – Researchers must not cause physical or psychological harm; participants should leave the study in the same state.
保护免受伤害 —— 研究者不得造成身体或心理伤害；参与者离开时状态应与进入时一样。
Privacy and confidentiality – Data must be kept anonymous and secure.
隐私与保密 —— 数据必须匿名并安全保存。
6. Multi‑store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) | 记忆的多重储存模型
This foundational model describes memory as consisting of three separate stores with information moving between them through rehearsal.
这个基础模型将记忆描述为由三个独立的储存器构成，信息通过复述在它们之间移动。
Sensory register → Short‑term memory → Long‑term memory
Key principles:
关键原则：
Sensory register: Duration up to half a second, very large capacity, encoding is sense‑specific (iconic for visual, echoic for auditory).
感觉登记：持续时间不到半秒，容量非常大，编码与特定感官有关（视觉为图像编码，听觉为声像编码）。
Short‑term memory (STM): Duration 18–30 seconds, capacity 7±2 items, mainly acoustic encoding.
短时记忆：持续 18–30 秒，容量为 7±2 个项目，主要为听觉编码。
Long‑term memory (LTM): Potentially unlimited duration and capacity, mainly semantic encoding.
长时记忆：持续时间与容量理论上无限，主要为语义编码。
Maintenance rehearsal keeps information in STM; elaborative rehearsal moves it into LTM.
维持性复述使信息保持在短时记忆中；精细复述将信息转入长时记忆。
7. Types of Long‑term Memory (Tulving) | 长时记忆的类型 (图尔文)
Tulving proposed that long‑term memory is not a single store but can be divided into three types, each supported by different brain areas.
图尔文提出长时记忆并非单一存储库，而是可以分为三种类型，每种类型由不同脑区支持。
Episodic memory – Personal experiences and events, time‑stamped, e.g. recalling your last birthday.
情节记忆 —— 个人的经历和事件，带有时间标记，例如回忆去年的生日。
Semantic memory – Facts, knowledge and meanings, not time‑stamped, e.g. knowing the capital of France.
语义记忆 —— 事实、知识和意义，不带时间标记，例如知道法国的首都是巴黎。
Procedural memory – Memory for skills and actions, often unconscious, e.g. riding a bike.
程序记忆 —— 对技能和动作的记忆，通常在无意识下完成，例如骑自行车。
8. Schema Theory (Bartlett) | 图式理论 (巴特利特)
A schema is a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that helps us organise and interpret information. Bartlett argued that memory is reconstructive: when we recall an event, we use our schemas to fill gaps, often distorting the memory to fit pre‑existing knowledge.
图式是一种由信念和期望构成的心理框架，帮助我们组织和解释信息。巴特利特认为记忆是重构性的：当我们回忆一个事件时，会用图式填补空白，常常使记忆发生扭曲以符合已有的知识。
This ‘theorem’ explains why people from different cultural backgrounds may remember the same story differently – their schemas shape recall.
这个“定理”解释了为什么不同文化背景的人会对同一个故事产生不同的记忆——他们的图式影响了回忆。
9. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Social influence refers to how an individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours are affected by other people. Two major types are often presented as theoretical principles:
社会影响指的是他人的存在如何改变个体的思想、情感和行为。两种主要类型常作为理论原则被提出：
Conformity – A change in behaviour or opinion to match the majority, often due to normative influence (desire to fit in) or informational influence (belief that the group is correct). Asch’s line study (1951) demonstrated conformity pressure.
从众 —— 行为或观点改变以与多数人保持一致，常因规范影响（渴望融入）或信息影响（认为群体更正确）。阿希线段实验（1951）证明从众压力。
Obedience – Following a direct order from an authority figure, even if it goes against personal conscience. Milgram’s shock study (1963) showed surprisingly high obedience rates.
服从 —— 遵从权威人物直接发出的指令，即使这违背个人良知。米尔格拉姆电击实验（1963）显示了惊人的高服从率。
10. Research Methods: Variables and Hypotheses | 研究方法：变量与假设
All experiments examine the relationship between two key variables. Knowing how to identify and write them is a skill as important as a formula.
所有实验都考查两个关键变量之间的关系。懂得如何识别和表述这些变量，其重要性不亚于掌握一个公式。
Independent variable (IV) – The factor manipulated by the researcher, e.g. the presence or absence of background noise.
自变量 (IV) —— 由研究者操控的因素，例如背景噪音的有无。
Dependent variable (DV) – The factor measured by the researcher, e.g. the number of words correctly recalled.
因变量 (DV) —— 由研究者测量的因素，例如正确回忆出的单词数量。
Directional (one‑tailed) hypothesis – Predicts the specific direction of the effect, e.g. “Participants will recall more words in silence than in noise.”
定向（单尾）假设 —— 预测效应的具体方向，例如“参与者在安静环境中比在噪音环境中能回忆出更多单词。”
Non‑directional (two‑tailed) hypothesis – Predicts a difference but does not state the direction, e.g. “There will be a difference in recall between silent and noisy conditions.”
非定向（双尾）假设 —— 预测存在差异但不说明方向，例如“安静与噪音条件下的回忆量存在差异。”
Null hypothesis – States there is no significant difference or relationship; any observed effect is due to chance.
零假设 —— 声明不存在显著差异或关系，任何观察到的效应均偶然所致。
11. Counterbalancing and Order Effects | 平衡法与顺序效应
In repeated measures designs, the order in which participants experience conditions can affect the DV. To ‘cancel out’ these order effects, researchers use counterbalancing – half the participants do Condition A then B, the other half do B then A.
在重复测量设计中，参与者体验条件的顺序可能影响因变量。为了“抵消”这些顺序效应，研究者使用平衡法——一半参与者先做条件 A 再做条件 B，另一半先做条件 B 再做条件 A。
This principle is a standard formula for controlling a common extraneous variable.
这一原则是控制常见额外变量的标准“公式”。
12. Interference Theory of Forgetting | 遗忘的干扰理论
Forgetting in long‑term memory is explained by interference rather than simply decay. Two types:
长时记忆中的遗忘用干扰来解释，而不是简单的时间消退。干扰分为两种类型：
Proactive interference – Old information disrupts recall of new information (e.g. calling a new partner by an ex’s name).
前摄干扰 —— 旧信息干扰了新信息的提取（例如用前任的名字称呼现任伴侣）。
Retroactive interference – New learning disrupts recall of old information (e.g. forgetting your old address after learning a new one).
倒摄干扰 —— 新学习干扰了旧信息的提取（例如学到新地址后忘记了旧地址）。
This theory can be thought of as a ‘theorem’ about retrieval competition in memory.
这个理论可被看作是关于记忆中提取竞争的“定理”。
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