📚 Year 10 AQA Science: Core Knowledge Summary | 十年级AQA科学：核心知识点梳理
Welcome to your Year 10 AQA Science revision guide. This article consolidates the essential knowledge across Biology, Chemistry and Physics as specified in the AQA GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy specification. Use the paired English and Chinese explanations to strengthen your understanding of core concepts, key equations and important practical skills.
欢迎阅读你的十年级AQA科学复习指南。本文根据AQA GCSE联合科学：三部曲课程大纲，梳理了生物、化学和物理三科的核心知识。通过英中对照的讲解，你可以加深对基本概念、关键公式以及重要实验技能的理解。
1. Cell Biology Essentials | 细胞生物学要点
All living organisms are made of cells. The two main cell types are eukaryotic (with a nucleus) and prokaryotic (without a nucleus).
所有生物体都由细胞构成。主要的两种细胞类型是真核细胞（有细胞核）和原核细胞（无细胞核）。
- Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic. They contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes.
- 动物细胞和植物细胞是真核细胞，含有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体。
- Plant cells additionally have a rigid cell wall, a permanent vacuole and chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
- 植物细胞还具备坚硬的细胞壁、中央大液泡以及用于光合作用的叶绿体。
- Bacterial cells are prokaryotic. They are much smaller, have a single loop of DNA and may possess plasmids.
- 细菌是原核细胞，体积小得多，拥有一条环状DNA，并可能含有质粒。
agnification = size of image ÷ size of real object. Remember to convert units (1 mm = 1000 µm).
显微镜让我们能够观察细胞。放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实物大小。记住换算单位（1 mm = 1000 µm）。
2. Organisation in Living Organisms | 生物体的组织层次
Cells differentiate to become specialised, forming tissues, organs and organ systems. In animals, the digestive system breaks down large insoluble molecules into small soluble ones that can be absorbed.
细胞分化形成特化的细胞，进而构成组织、器官和器官系统。在动物体内，消化系统将大的不溶性分子分解为可吸收的小分子。
- Carbohydrases (e.g. amylase) break down starch into sugars. Proteases break down proteins into amino acids. Lipases break down lipids (fats) into glycerol and fatty acids.
- 碳水化合物酶（如淀粉酶）将淀粉分解为糖类。蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸。脂肪酶将脂质（脂肪）分解为甘油和脂肪酸。
- Bile is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and emulsifies fats to increase the surface area for lipase action. It also neutralises stomach acid.
- 胆汁由肝脏制造，储存在胆囊中，能乳化脂肪以增大脂肪酶作用的表面积，同时能中和胃酸。
The circulatory system transports substances around the body. The heart is a double pump, and blood flows through arteries, veins and capillaries.
循环系统将物质运输至全身。心脏是一个双泵，血液流经动脉、静脉和毛细血管。
3. Infection and Response Overview | 感染与免疫反应概览
Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists. They cause communicable diseases which can be spread by air, water, direct contact or vectors.
病原体包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。它们导致传染性疾病，可通过空气、水体、直接接触或媒介生物传播。
- Measles is a viral disease spread by droplets. HIV attacks the immune system. Tobacco mosaic virus affects plant leaves.
- 麻疹通过飞沫传播的病毒性疾病。人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)攻击免疫系统。烟草花叶病毒危害植物叶片。
- Salmonella and gonorrhoea are bacterial diseases. Rose black spot is a fungal disease of plants. Malaria is caused by a protist and spread by mosquitoes.
- 沙门氏菌和淋病是细菌性疾病。黑斑病是植物的真菌病。疟疾由原生生物引发，由蚊子传播。
The human body defends itself with non-specific barriers (skin, nose hairs, stomach acid) and the specific immune system, which produces antibodies and antitoxins. Vaccination introduces a dead or weakened pathogen to stimulate antibody production.
人体依靠非特异性屏障（皮肤、鼻毛、胃酸）和特异性免疫系统进行防御，后者产生抗体和抗毒素。疫苗接种通过引入灭活或减毒病原体来刺激机体产生抗体。
4. Bioenergetics: Photosynthesis and Respiration | 生物能学：光合作用与呼吸作用
Photosynthesis uses light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. It is an endothermic reaction that takes place in chloroplasts.
光合作用利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气。这是一个发生在叶绿体中的吸热反应。
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Factors affecting the rate include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Limiting factors can be identified from graphs.
影响光合作用速率的因素有光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。你可以通过曲线图找出限制因子。
Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria and releases energy from glucose. It is an exothermic reaction.
有氧呼吸发生在线粒体中，从葡萄糖释放能量。这是一个放热反应。
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy
Anaerobic respiration in muscles produces lactic acid; in yeast it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide (fermentation).
肌肉中的无氧呼吸产生乳酸；酵母的无氧呼吸则产生乙醇和二氧化碳（发酵）。
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table | 原子结构和元素周期表
All substances are made of atoms. An atom contains a tiny nucleus of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells.
所有物质都由原子构成。原子包含一个由质子和中子组成的微小原子核，核外电子分层排布。
- = 1, electron = very small (0.0005). Relative charges: proton +1, neutron 0, electron -1.
- 相对质量：质子1，中子1，电子极小(0.0005)。相对电荷：质子+1，中子0，电子-1。
- ns + neutrons. Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- 原子序数 = 质子数。质量数 = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素质子数相同但中子数不同。
Elements are arranged in the periodic table by increasing atomic number. Groups show similar chemical properties because they have the same number of outer electrons.
元素按照原子序数递增排列在周期表中。同一族的元素化学性质相似，因为它们具有相同的最外层电子数。
- Group 1: alkali metals are very reactive, soft, low density. Group 7: halogens are non-metals, reactivity decreases down the group. Group 0: noble gases are unreactive and monatomic.
- 第1族：碱金属非常活泼，质地软，密度低。第7族：卤素为非金属，活泼性沿族往下递减。第0族：稀有气体不活泼，以单原子存在。
Mendeleev arranged the first periodic table, leaving gaps for undiscovered elements and predicting their properties.
门捷列夫绘制了第一张元素周期表，为未发现的元素留出空位并预测了它们的性质。
6. Bonding, Structure and Properties | 化学键、结构与性质
Atoms bond to achieve a full outer shell of electrons. The three types of strong chemical bond are ionic, covalent and metallic.
原子通过成键获得稳定的最外层电子结构。三种类型的强化学键是离子键、共价键和金属键。
- Ionic bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal, involving electron transfer. The resulting ions are held in a giant ionic lattice, which conducts electricity when molten or dissolved.
- 离子键发生在金属与非金属之间，涉及电子转移。形成的离子由巨型离子晶格结合，在熔融或溶解状态下能导电。
- Covalent bonding shares electrons between non-metals. Simple molecular substances (e.g. H₂O, CO₂) have low melting points. Giant covalent structures (diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide) have very high melting points.
- 共价键是非金属原子之间共享电子。简单分子物质（如H₂O, CO₂）熔点低。巨型共价结构（金刚石、石墨、二氧化硅）熔点极高。
Graphite conducts electricity because each carbon atom forms three bonds, leaving one delocalised electron per atom. Diamond is hard because each carbon atom forms four bonds in a rigid tetrahedral network.
石墨能导电，因为每个碳原子只形成三个共价键，每个碳原子留下一个离域电子。金刚石极硬，因为每个碳原子成四个键形成刚性的四面体网状结构。
Metallic bonding involves a sea of delocalised electrons surrounding positive metal ions. This allows metals to conduct electricity and heat, and makes them malleable.
金属键由正金属离子周围的离域电子海构成。这使得金属能导电、导热，并具有延展性。
7. Quantitative Chemistry Basics | 定量化学基础
Chemical equations must be balanced so that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides. The relative formula mass (Mᵣ) is the sum of the relative atomic masses (Aᵣ) of all atoms in the formula.
化学方程式必须配平，以保证两边每种元素的原子数目相等。相对式量(Mᵣ)是化学式中所有原子的相对原子质量(Aᵣ)之和。
2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
f any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro constant). Mass (g) = moles × Mᵣ.
摩尔是物质的量的单位。1摩尔任何物质含有6.02 × 10²³个微粒（阿伏伽德罗常数）。质量(g) = 摩尔数 × 相对式量。
Reacting masses can be calculated using balanced equations and molar ratios. Conservation of mass applies, but in reactions involving a gas, mass may appear to change if the gas is not contained.
反应质量可根据配平方程式和摩尔比来计算。质量守恒定律适用，但在涉及气体的反应中，如果气体未被收集，质量可能看起来发生改变。
8. Chemical and Energy Changes | 化学变化与能量变化
Reactions of metals with acids produce a salt and hydrogen gas. The reactivity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au) helps predict displacement reactions. A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compound.
金属与酸的反应生成盐和氢气。金属活动性顺序表（K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au）有助于预测置换反应。活动性较强的金属能从化合物中置换出活动性较弱的金属。
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂
Electrolysis splits ionic compounds using electricity. Positive ions move to the cathode (negative electrode), and negative ions move to the anode (positive electrode). In the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, cryolite is added to lower the melting point.
电解利用电分解离子化合物。正离子移向阴极（负极），负离子移向阳极（正极）。电解氧化铝时加入冰晶石是为了降低熔点。
Exothermic reactions transfer energy to the surroundings (e.g. combustion, neutralisation). Endothermic reactions absorb energy (e.g. thermal decomposition). Reaction profiles show energy changes.
放热反应向周围传递能量（例如燃烧、中和反应）。吸热反应则吸收能量（例如热分解）。反应坐标图能显示能量变化。
9. Energy Stores and Transfers | 能量储存与转移
Energy is stored in different ways: kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, thermal, chemical, nuclear, magnetic and electrostatic. Energy can be transferred between stores by heating, by doing work (mechanically or electrically) or by radiation.
能量以不同形式储存：动能、重力势能、弹性势能、内能、化学能、核能、磁能和静电势能。能量通过加热、做功（机械功或电功）或辐射在储存形式之间转移。
Kinetic energy = ½ m v²
Gravitational potential energy = m g h
When a system changes, energy is conserved. The total energy before equals the total energy after. Dissipated energy, often thermal, spreads out into the surroundings and is no longer useful.
系统发生变化时能量守恒。变化前的总能量等于变化后的总能量。消耗掉的能量，通常是内能，散逸到周围环境中，不再有用。
ansfer ÷ total input energy transfer. Improving efficiency reduces unwanted energy transfers, often through lubrication or thermal insulation.
效率 = 有用输出能量转移 ÷ 总输入能量转移。提高效率可以通过润滑或隔热等方式来减少无用的能量转移。
10. Electricity Fundamentals | 电学基础
Electric current is the flow of electrical charge. For current to flow, a circuit must be complete and contain a source of potential difference (voltage).
电流是电荷的流动。要形成电流，电路必须闭合并且具备电动势（电压）源。
Charge (C) = Current (A) × Time (s) (Q = I t)
rgy transferred (J) ÷ charge (C). Resistance (Ω) = potential difference (V) ÷ current (A).
电压(V) = 能量转移(J) ÷ 电荷(C)。电阻(Ω) = 电压(V) ÷ 电流(A)。
In a series circuit, current is the same everywhere, and total resistance is the sum of individual resistances. In a parallel circuit, the current splits between branches, but the potential difference across each branch is the same.
在串联电路中，各处电流相等，总电阻为各电阻之和。在并联电路中，电流在各支路中分流，但每条支路两端的电压相同。
Mains electricity in the UK is 230 V, 50 Hz alternating current. Domestic wiring uses a live wire (brown), neutral wire (blue) and earth wire (green/yellow) for safety. Fuses and circuit breakers prevent overheating and electric shock.
英国的家用电网为230伏、50赫兹交流电。家庭布线的火线（棕色）、零线（蓝色）和地线（绿/黄色）保证用电安全。保险丝和断路器可防止过热和触电。
11. Particle Model of Matter | 物质的粒子模型
olume (m³). Solids have tightly packed, vibrating particles; liquids have closely packed, moving particles; gases have widely spaced, fast-moving particles.
粒子模型将物质描述为微小运动粒子。物质的密度(kg/m³) = 质量(kg) ÷ 体积(m³)。固体的粒子紧密排列、在固定位置振动；液体的粒子排列较紧密并可移动；气体的粒子间距大、运动快。
Internal energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of the particles in a system. Changing the temperature or state alters the internal energy.
内能是系统中粒子动能与势能的总和。改变温度或物态可以改变内能。
During a change of state (melting, boiling, condensing, freezing, subliming), the temperature remains constant even though energy is still being transferred. The specific latent heat is the energy required to change 1 kg of a substance at constant temperature.
在物态变化过程中（熔化、沸腾、冷凝、凝固、升华），即使能量仍在转移，温度也保持恒定。比潜热是1千克物质在恒定温度下发生物态变化所需的能量。
Energy for a change of state (J) = mass (kg) × specific latent heat (J/kg)
12. Atomic Structure and Radiation | 原子结构与放射性
The nuclear model describes an atom with a tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus orbited by electrons. Rutherford's gold foil experiment provided evidence for this model, showing that most of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus and much of the atom is empty space.
原子核模型描述原子具有微小、致密、带正电的原子核，电子绕核运动。卢瑟福的金箔实验为该模型提供了证据，表明大部分质量集中在原子核，而原子内大部分是空的。
Some isotopes are unstable and decay by emitting ionising radiation: alpha particles (helium nuclei, highly ionising, least penetrating), beta particles (high-speed electrons, moderately ionising) and gamma rays (electromagnetic waves, weakly ionising, most penetrating).
某些同位素不稳定，通过发出电离辐射衰变：α粒子（氦原子核，电离能力最强，穿透力最弱）、β粒子（高速电子，中等电离能力）和γ射线（电磁波，电离能力最弱，穿透力最强）。
- Alpha decay: mass number decreases by 4, atomic number decreases by 2. Beta decay: mass number unchanged, atomic number increases by 1.
- α衰变：质量数减4，原子序数减2。β衰变：质量数不变，原子序数加1。
Half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. It can be used to calculate the activity after a certain number of half-lives or to determine the age of archaeological finds (carbon-14 dating).
半衰期是样本中一半放射性原子核发生衰变所需的时间。可利用半衰期计算经过若干半衰期后的放射性活度，或测定考古发现的年代（碳-14定年法）。
Radioactivity has both useful applications (medical imaging, radiotherapy, sterilising equipment) and risks (causing cancer, cell damage). Safety precautions include using tongs, keeping sources at a distance, and shielding.
放射性既有有益的应用（医学成像、放射治疗、设备灭菌），也存在风险（致癌、细胞损伤）。安全措施包括使用镊子、保持距离和进行屏蔽。
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