📚 Year 10 AQA Biology: Core Concepts Revision | AQA 生物核心知识点梳理
This article covers the essential knowledge for Year 10 AQA GCSE Biology, including cell biology, organisation, infection and response, and bioenergetics. Mastering these core concepts will help you prepare for assessments and build a strong foundation for Year 11.
本文涵盖 AQA GCSE 生物 Year 10 核心知识点，包括细胞生物学、组织、感染与反应以及生物能学。掌握这些核心内容有助你备考并为 Year 11 的学习打下坚实基础。
1. Cell Structure and Types | 细胞结构与类型
All living organisms are made of cells. Cells can be either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
一切生物体都由细胞构成。细胞可分为原核细胞和真核细胞。
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus containing genetic material, while prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and have DNA free in the cytoplasm.
真核细胞有细胞核，包含遗传物质；原核细胞没有细胞核，DNA 游离在细胞质中。
Both plant and animal cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes.
植物细胞和动物细胞都有细胞膜、细胞质、细胞核、线粒体和核糖体。
Plant cells also have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, a permanent vacuole filled with cell sap, and chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
植物细胞还有由纤维素构成的刚性细胞壁、充满细胞液的中央大液泡，以及含有叶绿素进行光合作用的叶绿体。
Bacteria are prokaryotes: they have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and small rings of DNA called plasmids, but no nucleus.
细菌是原核生物：它们有细胞壁、细胞膜、细胞质和称为质粒的小型环状 DNA，但没有细胞核。
| Organelle / 细胞器 | Function / 功能 |
|---|---|
| Nucleus (细胞核) | Contains DNA, controls cell activities (含 DNA，控制细胞活动) |
| Cytoplasm (细胞质) | Site of chemical reactions (化学反应的场所) |
| Cell membrane (细胞膜) | Controls movement of substances (控制物质的进出) |
| Mitochondria (线粒体) | Site of aerobic respiration (有氧呼吸的场所) |
| Ribosomes (核糖体) | Protein synthesis (蛋白质合成) |
| Chloroplasts (叶绿体) | Absorb light energy for photosynthesis (吸收光能进行光合作用) |
| Permanent vacuole (大液泡) | Contains cell sap, maintains turgor (含细胞液，维持膨压) |
| Cell wall (细胞壁) | Provides structural support (提供结构支撑) |
2. Cell Specialisation and Differentiation | 细胞特化与分化
Differentiation is the process by which a cell develops new sub-cellular structures to carry out a specific function.
分化是细胞发展出新的亚细胞结构以执行特定功能的过程。
Animal cells often differentiate at an early stage, whereas many plant cells retain the ability to differentiate throughout their life.
动物细胞通常在早期就发生分化，而许多植物细胞终生保持分化能力。
Examples of specialised animal cells include sperm cells (streamlined head, many mitochondria), nerve cells (long axon, branched endings), and muscle cells (contain many mitochondria and protein fibres to contract).
特化动物细胞的例子包括精子（流线型的头部、许多线粒体）、神经细胞（长轴突、分支末梢）和肌肉细胞（含大量线粒体和收缩蛋白纤维）。
Specialised plant cells include root hair cells (large surface area for water absorption), xylem cells (hollow tubes strengthened by lignin) and phloem cells (sieve plates to transport sugars).
特化植物细胞包括根毛细胞（大面积吸收水分）、木质部细胞（由木质素加厚的空心管）和韧皮部细胞（筛板用于运输糖分）。
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can divide and give rise to many other types of cells. In humans, embryonic stem cells and adult bone marrow stem cells are examples.
干细胞是未分化的细胞，可以分裂并产生多种其他类型的细胞。人类胚胎干细胞和成体骨髓干细胞就是例子。
3. Microscopy and Magnification | 显微镜与放大倍数
A light microscope uses visible light and lenses to magnify small structures. Electron microscopes have much higher magnification and resolution.
光学显微镜利用可见光和透镜放大微小结构。电子显微镜具有更高的放大倍数和分辨率。
The magnification formula is:
放大倍数计算公式为：
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
When using a light microscope, you must prepare slides carefully and focus sequentially using the coarse and fine adjustment knobs.
使用光学显微镜时，必须仔细制备玻片，并依次用粗准焦螺旋和细准焦螺旋调焦。
The required practical involves observing onion epidermal cells and cheek cells, drawing biological diagrams with labels and recording magnification.
必做实验涉及观察洋葱表皮细胞和口腔上皮细胞，绘制带标注的生物图并记录放大倍数。
4. Transport in Cells: Diffusion, Osmosis, Active Transport | 细胞运输：扩散、渗透、主动运输
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient. It is a passive process.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动，顺着浓度梯度。这是一个被动过程。
Factors affecting diffusion rate include temperature, concentration gradient, and surface area of the membrane.
影响扩散速率的因素包括温度、浓度梯度和膜表面积。
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
渗透是水分子通过半透膜从稀溶液向浓溶液的扩散。
If an animal cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potential, it may shrink; if in pure water, it may burst. Plant cells become turgid in dilute solutions and plasmolysed in concentrated solutions.
若将动物细胞置于水势较低的溶液中，细胞会皱缩；若在纯水中，可能膨胀破裂。植物细胞在稀溶液中呈硬挺状态，在浓溶液中则发生质壁分离。
Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient, using energy from respiration. This is vital for root hair cells absorbing mineral ions and for glucose uptake in the gut.
主动运输利用呼吸作用提供的能量，逆浓度梯度移动物质。这对于根毛细胞吸收矿质离子以及肠道吸收葡萄糖至关重要。
5. Organisation: Digestive System and Enzymes | 组织：消化系统与酶
The digestive system breaks down large food molecules into small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.
消化系统将大食物分子分解成可溶于水的小分子，使之能被吸收进入血液。
Key organs include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (where absorption occurs), large intestine (water absorption), and glands such as the salivary glands, pancreas and liver.
主要器官包括口腔、食道、胃、小肠（吸收的场所）、大肠（吸收水分）以及唾液腺、胰腺和肝脏等腺体。
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein. They have a specific active site that fits a substrate, described by the lock-and-key model.
酶是由蛋白质构成的生物催化剂。它们具有特定的活性位点与底物契合，这可以用锁钥模型来解释。
Carbohydrases (e.g. amylase) break down starch into sugars; proteases break down proteins into amino acids; lipases break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
碳水化合物酶（如淀粉酶）将淀粉分解为糖；蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸；脂肪酶将脂质分解为脂肪酸和甘油。
Enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH. High temperatures or extreme pH can denature the enzyme, changing the shape of its active site and preventing substrate binding.
酶活性受温度和 pH 影响。高温或极端 pH 会使酶变性，改变活性位点形状，使底物无法结合。
6. The Circulatory System and Blood | 循环系统与血液
The human heart is a double pump with four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle. Valves prevent backflow of blood.
人类的心脏是一个双泵，有四个腔室：右心房、右心室、左心房、左心室。瓣膜防止血液倒流。
The natural pacemaker (SA node) controls the heart rate. Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure; veins return blood to the heart and contain valves; capillaries link them and allow substance exchange.
天然起搏器（窦房结）控制心率。动脉在高压下将血液带离心脏；静脉将血液送回心脏并含有瓣膜；毛细血管连接二者并进行物质交换。
Blood consists of red blood cells (transport oxygen, no nucleus), white blood cells (defend against infection), platelets (help clotting), and plasma (transports nutrients, hormones and waste).
血液由红细胞（运输氧气，无细胞核）、白细胞（防御感染）、血小板（帮助凝血）和血浆（运输营养物质、激素和废物）组成。
Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood; blockages can lead to coronary heart disease, often treated with stents or statins.
冠状动脉为心肌供应含氧血；阻塞可导致冠心病，通常用支架或他汀类药物治疗。
7. Communicable Diseases and Immune Response | 传染病与免疫反应
Pathogens include viruses (e.g. measles, HIV, tobacco mosaic virus), bacteria (e.g. Salmonella, gonorrhoea), fungi (e.g. rose black spot), and protists (e.g. malaria).
病原体包括病毒（如麻疹、HIV、烟草花叶病毒）、细菌（如沙门氏菌、淋病）、真菌（如玫瑰黑斑病）和原生生物（如疟疾）。
Viral diseases cannot be treated with antibiotics; antibiotics only kill bacteria. Painkillers relieve symptoms but do not kill pathogens.
病毒性疾病不能用抗生素治疗；抗生素仅能杀死细菌。止痛药可缓解症状，但不能杀死病原体。
The body's first line of defence includes the skin and mucus membranes. White blood cells engulf pathogens through phagocytosis or produce antibodies and antitoxins.
人体的第一道防线包括皮肤和粘膜。白细胞通过吞噬作用吞食病原体，或产生抗体和抗毒素。
Vaccination involves introducing a dead or weakened form of a pathogen to stimulate antibody production and create memory cells, providing immunity without causing illness.
疫苗接种是引入灭活或减毒的病原体，刺激产生抗体并形成记忆细胞，从而在不致病的情况下获得免疫。
8. Photosynthesis and Limiting Factors | 光合作用与限制因素
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction in which plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
光合作用是一个吸热反应，植物利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气。
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. A limiting factor is the one that is in shortest supply and restricts the rate.
光合作用速率受光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度影响。限制因素是指供应量最少、限制反应速率的那个因素。
Glucose produced is used for respiration, converted into starch for storage, used to make cellulose for cell walls, combined with nitrate ions to form amino acids, and stored as lipids.
产生的葡萄糖用于呼吸作用，转变为淀粉储存，用于制造细胞壁的纤维素，与硝酸根离子结合形成氨基酸，并以脂质形式储存。
The required practical for photosynthesis uses pondweed (Elodea) to measure oxygen production at different light intensities, providing evidence for the effect of limiting factors.
光合作用的必做实验使用伊乐藻，在不同光强下测量氧气的产生，为限制因素的影响提供证据。
9. Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration | 有氧呼吸与无氧呼吸
Respiration is an exothermic process that releases energy from glucose. It is not the same as breathing.
呼吸作用是一个放热过程，从葡萄糖中释放能量。它与呼吸（气体交换）不是同一概念。
Aerobic: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O (+ energy)
Anaerobic respiration in animals produces lactic acid, causing muscle fatigue. The breakdown of glucose is incomplete and releases far less energy.
动物体内的无氧呼吸产生乳酸，导致肌肉疲劳。葡萄糖的不完全分解释放的能量少得多。
Animal anaerobic: Glucose → Lactic acid
In plants and yeast, anaerobic respiration yields ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process is called fermentation and is used in bread-making and alcoholic beverage production.
在植物和酵母中，无氧呼吸生成乙醇和二氧化碳。这一过程称为发酵，用于面包制作和酒精饮料生产。
Yeast/Plant anaerobic: Glucose → Ethanol + CO₂
10. Key Required Practicals for Year 10 AQA Biology | AQA Year 10 核心必做实验
Microscopy: Prepare and stain onion and cheek cell slides, observe and draw cells with labels, calculate magnification.
显微镜：制备并染色洋葱和口腔细胞临时装片，观察并绘制标记细胞图，计算放大倍数。
Osmosis in potato: Place potato cylinders in sugar solutions of different concentrations, measure change in mass/length to investigate water movement.
土豆渗透实验：将土豆条置于不同浓度的蔗糖溶液中，测量质量和长度的变化以研究水分移动。
Enzyme activity (amylase): Mix amylase solution with starch suspension and record the time taken for starch to disappear using iodine tests at different pH or temperature.
酶活性实验（淀粉酶）：将淀粉酶溶液与淀粉悬浊液混合，通过在不同pH或温度下用碘液测试淀粉消失所需时间。
Photosynthesis (pondweed): Place pondweed in water with sodium hydrogen carbonate, count bubbles per minute at different distances from a light source to measure rate.
光合作用（伊乐藻）：将伊乐藻放入含碳酸氢钠的水中，在不同光源距离处记录每分钟气泡数来测量速率。
Always handle apparatus safely, control variables such as temperature and volume, and repeat measurements to improve reliability.
始终安全操作仪器，控制温度和体积等变量，重复测量以提高可靠性。
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