📚 Year 10 Edexcel Science: Core Knowledge Review | 十年级 Edexcel 科学核心知识点梳理
In Year 10 Edexcel Science, students build on Key Stage 3 foundations to explore Biology, Chemistry, and Physics in greater depth. This review brings together the essential facts, equations, and ideas that form the backbone of GCSE Combined Science. Whether you are revising for mocks or consolidating classwork, mastering these core concepts will strengthen your understanding and exam technique.
在十年级 Edexcel 科学课程中，学生在关键阶段 3 的基础上更深入地学习生物、化学和物理。本文梳理了构成 GCSE 综合科学核心的重要事实、方程式和概念。无论你是在准备模拟考试还是巩固课堂知识，掌握这些核心内容都将增强你的理解和考试技巧。
1. Cell Structure and Function | 细胞结构与功能
All living organisms are composed of cells. Eukaryotic cells, such as those of animals and plants, contain a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles like mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells also have a cellulose cell wall, a large permanent vacuole, and chloroplasts for photosynthesis. Prokaryotic cells, including bacteria, are much smaller and lack a nucleus, with genetic material floating freely as a single loop of DNA and sometimes small rings called plasmids.
所有生物都由细胞组成。真核细胞（如动植物细胞）具有有膜包裹的细胞核以及线粒体、核糖体等细胞器。植物细胞还有纤维素细胞壁、一个中央大液泡和进行光合作用的叶绿体。原核细胞（如细菌）要小得多，没有细胞核，遗传物质以单环 DNA 的形式游离在细胞质中，有时还有称为质粒的小环 DNA。
f object. When using a light microscope, prepare a dry mount or wet mount slide, and stain the specimen if necessary to make subcellular structures visible. Remember that electron microscopes have much higher magnification and resolution, allowing us to see much smaller details.
显微镜操作是一项关键实验技能。你需要学会使用公式：放大倍数 = 图像大小 / 实际大小。使用光学显微镜时，制备干涂片或湿涂片，必要时对样本进行染色，以便观察亚细胞结构。请记住，电子显微镜的放大倍数和分辨率都高得多，可以看到更细微的结构。
2. Transport Across Cell Membranes | 物质跨膜运输
Substances move into and out of cells by diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, down the concentration gradient. It is a passive process that requires no energy. Factors affecting the rate of diffusion include temperature, concentration gradient, and surface area. In biology, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by diffusion across the alveolar membrane in the lungs.
物质通过扩散、渗透和主动运输进出细胞。扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动，沿着浓度梯度进行，是被动过程，不需要能量。影响扩散速率的因素包括温度、浓度梯度和表面积。在生物学中，氧气和二氧化碳通过肺泡膜的扩散进行交换。
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion involving water molecules moving across a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (more concentrated solution). Active transport, on the other hand, moves substances against the concentration gradient. This requires energy from respiration and carrier proteins in the membrane. An example is the uptake of mineral ions by root hair cells in plants.
渗透是扩散的一种特殊形式，指水分子通过部分透性膜从水势较高的区域（稀溶液）向水势较低的区域（较浓溶液）移动。主动运输则逆浓度梯度移动物质，需要呼吸作用提供的能量和膜上的载体蛋白。例如，植物根毛细胞对矿质离子的吸收。
3. Enzymes and Digestion | 酶与消化
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being used up. They are proteins with an active site that is complementary to a specific substrate. This lock-and-key model explains enzyme specificity. Enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH. At low temperatures, molecules have less kinetic energy and collisions are fewer. As temperature rises to the optimum, activity increases, but beyond the optimum, the enzyme denatures—the active site changes shape irreversibly and the substrate can no longer bind.
酶是生物催化剂，能加快反应而自身不被消耗。它们是蛋白质，其活性部位与特定底物互补。锁钥模型解释了酶的专一性。酶的活性受温度和 pH 的影响。低温下分子动能较小，碰撞较少；温度升至最适温度时活性最高；超过最适温度，酶就会变性——活性部位形状发生不可逆改变，底物无法再结合。
In the human digestive system, large insoluble molecules are broken down by enzymes into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Amylase (produced in the salivary glands and pancreas) breaks down starch into maltose. Proteases (in the stomach and small intestine) break down proteins into amino acids. Lipases (from the pancreas) break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Bile, produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fats, providing a larger surface area for lipase action, and it also neutralises stomach acid for optimum enzyme pH in the small intestine.
在人体消化系统中，不溶性大分子被酶分解为可溶性的小分子，从而能被吸收进入血液。淀粉酶（由唾液腺和胰腺分泌）将淀粉分解为麦芽糖。蛋白酶（在胃和小肠）将蛋白质分解为氨基酸。脂肪酶（来自胰腺）将脂类分解为脂肪酸和甘油。肝脏产生的胆汁储存在胆囊中，胆汁能乳化脂肪，为脂肪酶的作用提供更大的表面积，同时中和胃酸，为小肠中的酶提供最适 pH。
4. The Circulatory System and Disease | 循环系统与疾病
The human circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a double pump: the right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation), and the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body (systemic circulation). The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker. Arteries have thick muscular walls to withstand high pressure, veins have valves to prevent backflow, and capillaries are one cell thick to allow efficient exchange of substances.
人体循环系统由心脏、血管和血液组成。心脏是一个双泵：右侧将缺氧血泵送到肺部（肺循环），左侧将含氧血泵送到全身（体循环）。静息心率由右心房中的一组起搏细胞控制。动脉有厚实的肌肉壁以承受高压，静脉有瓣膜以防止回流，毛细血管只有一层细胞厚，便于高效的物质交换。
Coronary heart disease occurs when the coronary arteries that supply the heart muscle with oxygen become narrowed by fatty plaques. Risk factors include poor diet, smoking, lack of exercise, and high blood pressure. Lifestyle changes and medicines such as statins can lower cholesterol. In severe cases, a stent may be inserted to keep the artery open, or a bypass surgery may be performed. Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists. The immune system defends the body by producing antibodies and by phagocytosis. Vaccination introduces a dead or weakened form of a pathogen to stimulate antibody production and immunological memory.
冠心病是指为心肌供氧的冠状动脉因脂肪斑块而变窄。风险因素包括不良饮食、吸烟、缺乏运动及高血压。改变生活方式和使用他汀类药物可降低胆固醇。严重病例可能需要植入支架以撑开血管，或进行搭桥手术。传染病由病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物等病原体引起。免疫系统通过产生抗体和吞噬作用来防御机体。疫苗接种是将灭活或减毒的病原体引入体内，以刺激抗体产生和免疫记忆。
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table | 原子结构与周期表
An atom consists of a tiny nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons arranged in energy levels (shells). The atomic number is the number of protons, which determines the element. The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of its isotopes relative to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon‑12 atom.
原子由微小的原子核和绕核排布的电子组成，原子核包含质子和中子，电子则处在不同的能级（电子层）上。原子序数是质子数，决定了元素。质量数是质子数和中子数之和。同位素是质子数相同而中子数不同的同一元素的原子。元素的相对原子质量是其各种同位素相对于碳‑12 原子质量的 1/12 的加权平均质量。
The periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number. Elements in the same group have the same number of outer-shell electrons and therefore similar chemical properties. Group 1 contains the alkali metals, which are soft, very reactive, and form ionic compounds with non-metals. Group 7 contains the halogens, reactive non-metals that exist as diatomic molecules. Group 0 (noble gases) are unreactive because they have a full outer shell. Metals are found to the left and centre, non-metals to the right. The arrangement helps predict properties such as reactivity down a group and trends in melting points.
周期表按原子序数递增的顺序排列元素。同一族的元素最外层电子数相同，因此化学性质相似。第 1 族是碱金属，质地柔软、反应性极强，与非金属形成离子化合物。第 7 族是卤素，是活泼的非金属，以双原子分子形式存在。第 0 族（稀有气体）因最外层已满而不易发生反应。金属位于周期表左侧和中部，非金属位于右侧。这一排列有助于预测元素的性质，例如同族元素反应性的递变和熔点的变化趋势。
6. Chemical Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构
Atoms bond to achieve a full outer electron shell, becoming more stable. Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non‑metals. Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations), while non‑metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions). The strong electrostatic forces between these oppositely charged ions form a giant ionic lattice. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water because the ions are free to move.
原子通过成键获得满的最外层电子层而变得稳定。离子键存在于金属和非金属之间。金属失电子形成阳离子，非金属得电子形成阴离子。这些带相反电荷的离子之间的强静电力构成了巨型离子晶格。离子化合物具有较高的熔点和沸点，在熔融状态或溶于水时能导电，因为此时离子可以自由移动。
Covalent bonding occurs between non‑metal atoms. Atoms share pairs of electrons to fill their outer shells. Simple molecular substances, such as water and carbon dioxide, consist of small molecules with weak intermolecular forces, giving them low melting and boiling points. They do not conduct electricity. Giant covalent structures, such as diamond and silicon dioxide, have very high melting points due to strong covalent bonds throughout the lattice. Graphite is an exception—it has layers that can slide and delocalised electrons, making it a good conductor and a lubricant. Metallic bonding involves a lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a 'sea' of delocalised electrons, which explains why metals are good conductors of heat and electricity and can be bent and shaped.
共价键存在于非金属原子之间。原子共用电子对以填满最外层。简单分子物质（如水和二氧化碳）由小分子组成，分子间作用力较弱，因此熔点和沸点较低，且不导电。巨型共价结构（如金刚石和二氧化硅）由于整个晶格中充满了强共价键而具有极高的熔点。石墨是一个例外——它具有可以滑动的层和离域电子，因此既能导电又是优良的润滑剂。金属键由正金属离子晶格和周围的“离域电子海”组成，这解释了为何金属是热和电的良导体，并且具有延展性。
7. Quantitative Chemistry | 定量化学
f products. Some reactions, such as those involving a gas, may appear to show a mass change in an open container, but if the gas is collected, the total mass remains constant. The mole is the unit for the amount of substance. One mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro constant). The mass of one mole of a substance is its relative formula mass (Mᵣ) in grams.
质量守恒定律指出，化学反应中没有原子消失或生成，因此反应物的总质量等于生成物的总质量。某些涉及气体的反应在敞口容器中可能表现出质量变化，但如果收集气体，总质量仍保持不变。摩尔是物质的量的单位。1 摩尔任何物质含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个微粒（阿伏伽德罗常数）。1 摩尔物质的质量即为其相对式量 (Mᵣ) 的克数。
n is often expressed in mol/dm³ or g/dm³, and can be found using concentration = number of moles / volume (dm³). Titrations are used to find an unknown concentration. The rough titre and concordant results should be recorded to two decimal places. Calculations involving percentage yield and atom economy are important for evaluating the efficiency and sustainability of reactions.
利用摩尔可以计算反应质量和配平化学方程式。关键公式为：摩尔数 = 质量 (g) / 相对式量 (Mᵣ)。溶液的浓度通常以 mol/dm³ 或 g/dm³ 表示，可用 浓度 = 摩尔数 / 体积 (dm³) 求得。滴定法用于测定未知浓度。粗滴定量和一致的结果应记录至小数点后两位。涉及产率和原子经济性的计算对于评估反应的效率和可持续性非常重要。
8. Chemical Reactions and Energy Changes | 化学反应与能量变化
Chemical reactions can be classified as exothermic or endothermic. In an exothermic reaction, energy is transferred to the surroundings, typically causing a temperature rise. Examples include combustion, neutralisation, and respiration. In an endothermic reaction, energy is taken in from the surroundings, causing a temperature drop. Photosynthesis and thermal decomposition are key endothermic processes. Reaction profiles show the energy of reactants and products and the activation energy—the minimum energy needed for a reaction to occur.
化学反应可分为放热反应和吸热反应。放热反应中，能量传递到周围环境，通常导致温度升高，例如燃烧、中和与呼吸作用。吸热反应中，能量从周围环境中吸收，导致温度降低，光合作用和热分解是重要的吸热过程。反应历程图显示了反应物和生成物的能量以及活化能——反应发生所需的最低能量。
culated using bond energies: ΔH = total energy required to break bonds − total energy released forming bonds. A negative value indicates an exothermic reaction. Cells and batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy. In a simple cell, two different metals in an electrolyte produce a voltage. In electrolysis, an electric current drives a non‑spontaneous chemical reaction to decompose ionic compounds into elements.
断裂化学键需要能量（吸热），而形成化学键则释放能量（放热）。反应的总能量变化可以用键能计算：ΔH = 断裂所有键所需的总能量 - 形成所有键所释放的总能量。负值表明是放热反应。电池将化学能转化为电能。在简单电池中，电解质中的两种不同金属会产生电压。在电解中，电流驱动非自发的化学反应，将离子化合物分解为单质。
9. Motion and Forces | 运动与力
Speed and velocity describe how fast an object moves. Speed is a scalar quantity—it has magnitude only. Velocity is a vector— u+v)t/2, where u is initial velocity, v is final velocity, a is acceleration, t is time, and s is displacement. On a distance–time graph, the gradient represents speed. On a velocity– the gradient gives acceleration and the area under the line gives the distance travelled.
速率和速度描述物体运动的快慢。速率是标量，只有大小。速度是矢量，既有大小又有方向。加速度是速度的变化率。运动学方程可用于计算：v = u + at，以及 s = (u+v)t/2，其中 u 是初速度，v 是末速度，a 是加速度，t 是时间，s 是位移。在距离‑时间图上，斜率表示速率。在速度‑时间图上，斜率表示加速度，线下面积表示通过的距离。
es are pushes or pulls that can change the speed, direction, or shape of an object. Newton' n object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant force. Newton' n: F = m × a. Weight is the force due to gravity: W = m × g (g ≈ 10 N/kg on Earth). Newton' osite forces on each other. Resultant force is the overall force acting on an object. Free‑ n object is in equilibrium, the resultant force is zero. Stretching a spring follows Hooke' (within the limit of proportionality), where k is the spring constant and x is extension.
力是推或拉，可以改变物体的速度、方向或形状。牛顿第一定律指出，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动状态，除非受到合外力的作用。牛顿第二定律将力、质量和加速度关联起来：F = m × a。重量是重力引起的力：W = m × g（地球上 g ≈ 10 N/kg）。牛顿第三定律指出，两个物体相互作用时，彼此施加大小相等、方向相反的力。合外力是作用在物体上的总力。自由体受力图有助于形象地表示力。物体处于平衡状态时，合外力为零。弹簧的拉伸遵循胡克定律：F = k × x（在比例限度内），其中 k 是弹簧常数，x 是伸长量。
10. Energy and Work | 能量与功
servation of energy states that energy can be transferred usefully, stored, or dissipated, but cannot be created or destroyed. Work is done when a force moves an object: W = F × d (distance moved in the direction of the force). Kinetic energy = ½ × m × v². Gravitational potential energy = m × g × Δh. Power is the rate of doing work: P = W / t. Efficiency is the ratio of useful output energy transfer to total input energy transfer and can be expressed as a decimal or percentage.
能量可以以不同形式储存：动能、重力势能、弹性势能、热能、化学能等。能量守恒定律指出，能量可以有用地转移、储存或耗散，但不能被创造或消灭。力使物体移动时做了功：W = F × d（沿力方向移动的距离）。动能 = ½ × m × v²。重力势能 = m × g × Δh。功率是做功的快慢：P = W / t。效率是有用输出能量转移与总输入能量转移的比值，可用小数或百分数表示。
Energy transfers in systems can be represented by Sankey diagrams. Reducing unwanted energy transfers, such as by lubrication and thermal insulation, increases efficiency. Renewable energy resources, like solar and wind, will not run out, but non‑renewable fossil fuels do and contribute to climate change. The National Grid distributes electricity from power stations to consumers, using step‑up and step‑down transformers to minimise energy loss as heat in transmission cables.
系统中的能量转移可以用桑基图表示。通过润滑和隔热等方法减少不必要的能量转移，可以提高效率。可再生能源（如太阳能和风能）不会枯竭，但不可再生的化石燃料终将耗尽，并导致气候变化。国家电网将电力从发电站输送到用户，使用升压和降压变压器以最大限度地减少输电线路中的热损耗。
11. Waves and Electromagnetic Spectrum | 波与电磁波谱
g., water waves, electromagnetic waves). In longitudinal waves, oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer (e.g., sound waves). Wave speed, frequency, and wavelength are related by the equation: v = f × λ. Period (T) is the time for one complete wave, and f = 1/T. All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum (3.0 × 10⁸ m/s) but have different wavelengths and frequencies.
波传递能量而不传递物质。在横波中，振动方向与能量传播方向垂直（例如水波、电磁波）。在纵波中，振动方向与能量传播方向平行（例如声波）。波速、频率和波长的关系为：v = f × λ。周期 (T) 是完成一个完整波动所需的时间，f = 1/T。所有电磁波在真空中传播的速度相同（3.0 × 10⁸ m/s），但波长和频率不同。
The electromagnetic spectrum, in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, is: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X‑rays, and gamma rays. Each group has distinct applications and hazards. Radio waves are used for broadcasting and communications. Microwaves are used for cooking and satellite transmissions. Infrared is used in heaters and remote controls. Visible light is detected by the human eye. Ultraviolet is used in fluorescent lamps and can cause skin cancer. X‑rays are used in medical imaging, and gamma rays are used to sterilise equipment and treat cancer, but both are ionising and can damage cells. Refraction occurs when a wave changes speed crossing a boundary between two media, causing a change in direction unless it hits the normal at 0°.
电磁波谱按频率递增和波长递减的顺序为：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线和伽马射线。每类电磁波都有独特的应用和危害。无线电波用于广播和通信。微波用于烹饪和卫星传输。红外线用于加热器和遥控器。可见光被人眼感知。紫外线用于荧光灯，但可导致皮肤癌。X 射线用于医学成像，伽马射线用于设备灭菌和治疗癌症，但两者都具有电离性，可损伤细胞。当波穿过两种介质的界面传播速率发生变化时，会发生折射，除非入射角为 0°，否则波的传播方向会改变。
12. Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics | 放射性及核物理
Some atomic nuclei are unstable and emit radiation to become more stable. This is radioactivity. There are three main types of nuclear radiation: alpha (α) particles, which are helium nuclei (two protons and two neutrons) and are highly ionising but can be stopped by skin or paper; beta (β) particles, which are fast‑moving electrons and are stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium; and gamma (γ) rays, which are electromagnetic waves with high penetration, needing thick lead or concrete to absorb them. Radioactive decay is a random process, and the half‑life is the time taken for half the nuclei in a sample to decay or for the count rate to halve.
有些原子核不稳定，会通过发射辐射来变得更稳定，这就是放射性。核辐射主要有三种：α 粒子是氦原子核（两个质子和两个中子），电离能力强，但能被皮肤或纸张阻挡；β 粒子是快速移动的电子，能被几毫米厚的铝箔阻挡；γ 射线是穿透力极强的电磁波，需要厚铅或混凝土才能吸收。放射性衰变是一个随机过程，半衰期是指样本中一半的原子核发生衰变或计数率减半所需的时间。
Background radiation comes from natural sources such as radon gas, cosmic rays, and rocks, as well as artificial sources like medical procedures. Nuclear equations show how the mass and atomic numbers change during decay. In alpha decay, the atomic number decreases by 2 and the mass number by 4. In beta decay, the atomic number increases by 1 and the mass number stays the same, as a neutron turns into a proton and an electron. Gamma emission often accompanies alpha or beta decay and does not alter the composition of the nucleus. Uses of radiation include tracers in medicine, thickness gauges in industry, and radiocarbon dating. The risks of handling sources are minimised by precautions such as wearing a film badge, using tongs, and keeping exposure time short.
本底辐射来自天然来源（如氡气、宇宙射线和岩石）以及人工来源（如医疗程序）。核方程显示了衰变过程中质量数和原子序数的变化。α 衰变中，原子序数减 2，质量数减 4。β 衰变中，原子序数加 1，质量数不变，因为一个中子转变成一个质子和一个电子。γ 射线常伴随 α 或 β 衰变产生，但不改变核的组成。辐射的用途包括医学示踪、工业厚度测量和放射性碳定年等。处理放射源时，通过佩戴胶片徽章、使用长柄钳和缩短暴露时间等预防措施来降低风险。
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