📚 Formulas and Theorems Quick Reference for Year 9 WJEC Psychology | Year 9 WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册
In Year 9 WJEC Psychology, you will encounter key models, laws, and principles that help explain how the human mind works. This quick reference handbook brings together the most important ‘formulas and theorems’ – from memory capacity to social influence – in one easy-to-revise place. Each entry is broken down into core statements you need to know, followed by a Chinese translation to support bilingual learning.
在 Year 9 WJEC 心理学课程中，你会接触到解释人类心智如何运作的关键模型、定律和原理。这份速查手册将最重要的「公式与定理」——从记忆容量到社会影响——汇集在一处，方便复习。每个条目都拆解为你必须掌握的核心陈述，并附有中文翻译，支持双语学习。
1. The Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) | 记忆的多存储模型
(LTM). Information flows linearly from sensory input → attention → STM → rehearsal → LTM.
多存储模型将记忆描述为三个独立的存储器：感觉登记器、短时记忆和长时记忆。信息线性流动：感觉输入 → 注意 → 短时记忆 → 复述 → 长时记忆。
The Sensory Register holds a large amount of information for a very brief duration (iconic memory ~0.5 seconds, echoic memory ~2 seconds). Only information we pay attention to passes into STM.
感觉登记器在极短时间内保存大量信息（图像记忆约 0.5 秒，声像记忆约 2 秒）。只有我们注意到的信息才会进入短时记忆。
STM has a limited capacity and duration (see Miller’s Law and Peterson & Peterson). Rehearsal is the key process for transferring information to LTM, which has potentially unlimited capacity and duration.
短时记忆的容量和持续时间有限（见米勒定律与彼得森夫妇实验）。复述是将信息转移到长时记忆的关键过程，长时记忆的容量和持续时间可能是无限的。
2. Short-Term Memory Capacity: Miller’s Law | 短时记忆容量：米勒定律
aw states that the average capacity of short-term memory is 7 ± 2 chunks of information. A ‘chunk’ is a meaningful unit, such as a digit, letter, or a grouping like ‘BBC’.
米勒定律指出，短时记忆的平均容量为 7 ± 2 个组块。一个「组块」是一个有意义的单位，比如一个数字、一个字母或「BBC」这样的分组。
STM Capacity ≈ 7 ± 2 chunks
You can increase the amount of information held in STM by chunking – grouping items into larger, meaningful units. Without rehearsal, the capacity quickly drops.
你可以通过组块化——把项目组合成更大的、有意义的单元——来增加短时记忆所能容纳的信息量。若不进行复述，容量会迅速下降。
3. Duration of Short-Term Memory (Peterson & Peterson) | 短时记忆的持续时间
Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that the duration of STM without rehearsal is approximately 18–30 seconds. After 3 seconds, recall was about 80%; after 18 seconds, it dropped to below 10%.
彼得森夫妇（1959）发现，在没有复述的情况下，短时记忆的持续时间约为 18–30 秒。3 秒后回忆率约 80%，18 秒后降至 10% 以下。
STM Duration (no rehearsal) ≈ 18–30 s
The experiment used trigrams (e.g., BKF) and a distractor task (counting backwards) to prevent rehearsal. This demonstrates that STM decays rapidly unless we actively maintain the information.
实验中使用了三个辅音字母组（如 BKF）和干扰任务（倒数数字）来阻止复述。这证明短时记忆会迅速消退，除非我们主动维持信息。
4. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
Ebbinghaus (1885) discovered that forgetting follows a logarithmic curve: the sharpest decline in memory happens within the first hour, and then the rate of forgetting slows down.
艾宾浩斯（1885）发现，遗忘遵循对数曲线：记忆在最初一小时内急剧下降，随后遗忘速率减慢。
Retention = e–t/τ (where t = time, τ = memory strength constant)
He found that about 50% of nonsense syllables were forgotten after 1 hour, and about 70% after 24 hours. Relearning takes less time than original learning (savings method), showing that some memory traces remain.
他发现大约 50% 的无意义音节在 1 小时后被遗忘，24 小时后约 70% 被遗忘。再学习比初次学习用时更少（节省法），表明仍有一些记忆痕迹保留。
5. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch) | 工作记忆模型
The Working Memory Model replaces the idea of a single STM with a multi-component system: the Central Executive controls attention and coordinates two slave systems – the Phonological Loop (verbal/auditory information) and the Visuospatial Sketchpad (visual/spatial information). Later, the Episodic Buffer was added to integrate information across modalities.
工作记忆模型用多成分系统取代了单一的短时记忆概念：中央执行器控制注意力并协调两个从属系统——语音回路（言语/听觉信息）和视空间画板（视觉/空间信息）。后来增加了情景缓冲器，以整合跨通道信息。
The Phonological Loop has two subcomponents: the phonological store (holds words you hear) and the articulatory control process (rehearses spoken words). The word-length effect shows that shorter words are easier to remember than longer words.
语音回路有两个子成分：语音存储（保存听到的词语）和发音控制过程（复述言语）。词长效应表明，短词比长词更容易记住。
The Visuospatial Sketchpad handles visual patterns and spatial movement. You can use it for mental rotation tasks or remembering where you left your keys.
视空间画板处理视觉模式和空间移动。你可以用它来完成心理旋转任务，或记住钥匙放在哪里。
6. Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart) | 加工水平理论
This theory states that memory retention depends on how deeply information is processed. Shallow processing (structural – what words look like, or phonetic – how they sound) leads to fragile memories. Deep processing (semantic – what words mean) leads to long-lasting memories.
该理论认为，记忆的持久性取决于信息被加工的深度。浅层加工（结构加工——词形，或语音加工——读音）产生的记忆很脆弱。深层加工（语义加工——词义）则产生持久的记忆。
Memory Strength ∝ Depth of Processing
Craik and Tulving (1975) showed that words processed semantically were recalled significantly better than those processed structurally. This is not a structural model but a ‘process’ law of memory.
克雷克和塔尔文（1975）证明，经过语义加工的词比经过结构加工的词回忆率显著更高。这不是一个结构性模型，而是一条关于记忆过程的「定律」。
7. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段
Piaget’s theory can be seen as a set of developmental laws. Children progress through four fixed stages, each with distinct cognitive abilities. The order is invariant, but the ages are approximate.
皮亚杰的理论可被视为一组发展定律。儿童依次经历四个固定的阶段，每个阶段都有独特的认知能力。顺序固定不变，但年龄只是近似值。
| Stage | 阶段 | Approx. Age | 近似年龄 | Key Feature (Law) | 关键特征（定律） |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 感知运动 | 0–2 years | Object permanence develops – understanding that objects exist even when out of sight. | 客体永久性形成——明白物体即使看不见也依然存在。 |
| Preoperational | 前运算 | 2–7 years | Egocentrism – child can only see the world from own viewpoint; lacks conservation (understanding quantity remains the same despite appearance changes). | 自我中心——只能从自己的角度看世界；缺乏守恒概念（不理解量在形状改变后仍保持不变）。 |
| Concrete Operational | 具体运算 | 7–11 years | Conservation mastered; logical thinking about concrete objects; classification and seriation. | 守恒掌握；对具体事物进行逻辑思考；分类和排序能力。 |
| Formal Operational | 形式运算 | 11+ years | Abstract reasoning; hypothetical-deductive thinking; systematic problem solving. | 抽象推理；假设演绎思维；系统化问题解决。 |
8. Asch’s Conformity Effect | 阿希从众效应
Asch (1951) demonstrated a social law: people will often conform to an obviously wrong majority judgment to avoid social disapproval. In his line-judgment experiment, about 75% of participants conformed at least once, and the overall conformity rate was 37% across critical trials.
阿希（1951）展示了一条社会定律：人们常常会遵从明显错误的大多数判断，以避免社会否定。在他的线段判断实验中，约 75% 的参与者至少从众一次，关键试次的总体从众率为 37%。
s when: Group size ≥ 3; task is difficult; group is unanimous; status of majority is high.
Conformity decreases when there is a dissenter (breaking unanimity), or the participant can write answers privately. This shows that normative social influence (desire to fit in) is a powerful force.
当群体规模 ≥ 3、任务困难、群体意见一致、多数派地位高时，从众行为增加。当有人提出异议（打破一致性）或参与者可以私下书写答案时，从众行为减少。这表明规范社会影响（渴望融入）是一种强大的力量。
9. Milgram’s Obedience Factors | 米尔格拉姆服从因素
Milgram (1963) discovered that 65% of ordinary people would administer what they believed to be lethal electric shocks to a learner when ordered by an authority figure. Obedience is not just an individual trait; it follows predictable situational laws.
米尔格拉姆（1963）发现，65% 的普通人在权威人物的命令下，会对自己以为是学习者的对象施加他们认为致命的电击。服从不仅仅是个体特质；它遵循可预测的情境定律。
wn office), victim distance (remote victim → higher obedience), and diffusion of responsibility (the learner agreed to take part).
提高服从的关键因素：权威人物的亲近度（越近 → 服从越高）、机构的声望（耶鲁大学 vs. 破旧办公室）、受害者的距离（远离受害者 → 服从更高）、以及责任扩散（学习者同意参加）。
Obedience Rate = f (Authority Proximity, Prestige, Victim Distance, Peer Support)
10. The Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal | 耶克斯-多德森唤醒定律
Yerkes and Dodson (1908) proposed that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to an optimal point. Beyond that, performance declines, forming an inverted-U curve.
耶克斯和多德森（1908）提出，表现会随着生理或心理唤醒度的提高而提高，但只到最佳点为止。越过该点后，表现下降，形成倒 U 形曲线。
Performance = –(Arousal – Optimal Level)² + Peak Performance
The optimal level of arousal depends on task difficulty: for simple or well-learned tasks, higher arousal is better; for complex or new tasks, lower arousal is better. This law is crucial for understanding stress and eyewitness testimony accuracy.
最佳唤醒水平取决于任务难度：对于简单或熟练的任务，较高的唤醒度更好；对于复杂或新任务，较低的唤醒度更有利。这一定律对于理解压力和目击证词准确性至关重要。
11. Loftus & Palmer: Misinformation Effect | 洛夫特斯与帕尔默：误导信息效应
ions. This can be expressed as: Memory of Event = Original Trace + Post-event Information.
洛夫特斯和帕尔默（1974）证明，对事件的记忆可能被提问的措辞所扭曲。可表达为：事件记忆 = 原始痕迹 + 事后信息。
Participants who heard the verb ‘smashed’ estimated a higher speed (about 41 mph) than those who heard ‘contacted’ (about 32 mph). Leading questions create a schema that alters recall. This highlights that memory is reconstructive, not a perfect recording.
听到动词「撞碎」的参与者估计的车速（约 41 英里/小时）高于听到「碰触」的参与者（约 32 英里/小时）。引导性问题会创建一个图式，从而改变回忆。这凸显了记忆是重构性的，而非完美的录像。
12. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs | 马斯洛需求层次理论
Maslow’s theory can be viewed as a motivational law: human needs are arranged in a pyramid. Lower-level needs must be substantially satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating.
马斯洛的理论可被视作一条动机定律：人类需求按金字塔排列。低层次需求必须在很大程度上得到满足后，高层次需求才能产生激励作用。
| Level | 层次 | Need Type | 需求类型 | Examples | 示例 |
|---|---|---|
| 5 | Self-actualisation | 自我实现 | Creativity, problem solving, achieving potential | 创造力、问题解决、实现潜能 |
| 4 | Esteem | 尊重 | Self-esteem, recognition, respect from others | 自尊、认可、他人尊重 |
| 3 | Love/belonging | 爱与归属 | Friendship, family, intimacy | 友谊、家庭、亲密关系 |
| 2 | Safety | 安全 | Job security, health, shelter | 工作保障、健康、住所 |
| 1 | Physiological | 生理 | Food, water, sleep, air | 食物、水、睡眠、空气 |
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