📚 Year 9 SQA Sociology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Revision Guide | Year 9 SQA 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Understanding key sociological terms is the first step towards thinking like a sociologist. This bilingual guide breaks down essential vocabulary you will meet in Year 9 SQA Sociology. Each term is explained clearly first in English, then immediately in Chinese, so you can build your knowledge and confidence. Use these definitions to create flashcards, self‑quiz regularly, and embed the language of sociology in your essays and discussions.
掌握关键的社会学术语是像社会学家一样思考的第一步。这本双语速记指南拆解了你在九年级 SQA 社会学中会遇到的核心词汇。每个术语先给出清晰的英文解释，紧接着用中文说明，帮助你建构知识、建立信心。你可以用这些定义制作闪卡、定期自测，并将社会学的语言融入你的论文与课堂讨论中。
1. Key Sociological Perspectives | 关键社会学视角
Functionalism: A consensus theory that sees society as a stable system made up of interdependent parts, each fulfilling a function that maintains social order.
功能主义：一种共识理论，将社会视为由相互依赖的部分组成的稳定系统，每个部分都承担着维持社会秩序的功能。
Marxism: A conflict perspective founded by Karl Marx, arguing that society is structured by economic divisions between the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the exploited working class (proletariat).
马克思主义：由卡尔·马克思创立的冲突视角，主张社会是由统治阶级（资产阶级）与被剥削的工人阶级（无产阶级）之间的经济分裂所建构的。
Feminism: A sociological approach that highlights gender inequalities embedded in social institutions and campaigns for women's rights and equality.
女性主义：一种凸显社会制度中性别不平等并为妇女权利与平等而奋斗的社会学方法。
Interactionism: A micro‑level perspective that concentrates on face‑to‑face interactions and how individuals interpret and give meaning to social life through symbols.
互动论：一种微观层面的视角，聚焦于面对面互动以及个体如何通过符号来诠释和赋予社会生活意义。
New Right: A conservative political perspective blending free‑market economics with traditional values; it emphasises individual responsibility and often critiques welfare dependency.
新右派：一种将自由市场经济与传统价值观相结合的保守政治视角，强调个人责任，并经常批评福利依赖。
2. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on wealth, power, and status.
社会分层：根据财富、权力和地位将社会中的个人或群体进行等级化排列。
Social class: A large‑scale grouping of people who share similar economic and social positions; often defined by occupation, income, and lifestyle.
社会阶级：拥有相似经济和社会地位的大规模人群组合；通常由职业、收入和生活方式界定。
Life chances: The opportunities an individual has to achieve positive outcomes, such as good health, education, and a satisfying career; strongly shaped by class.
生活机遇：个体获得积极成果（如健康、教育、满意的职业）的机会；深受阶级影响。
Social mobility: The movement of individuals or families up or down the social hierarchy. Intragenerational mobility occurs within a person's lifetime; intergenerational mobility compares generations.
社会流动：个人或家庭在社会等级中向上或向下的移动。代内流动发生在个人一生之中；代际流动则比较不同世代。
Meritocracy: A system in which social positions are allocated on the basis of individual talent and effort rather than ascribed characteristics like birth.
贤能主义：一种根据个人才能和努力而非出身等先赋特征来分配社会地位的系统。
3. Family | 家庭
Nuclear family: A family unit consisting of two parents and their dependent children living together under one roof.
核心家庭：由父母双方及其受抚养子女共同居住在一个屋檐下的家庭单位。
Extended family: A family structure that includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles, often living nearby or together.
扩展家庭：一种亲属关系超出核心家庭的家庭结构，包括祖父母、叔伯、姑姑等，通常住在附近或一起生活。
Reconstituted (blended) family: A family formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new household.
重组家庭：一方或双方将此前关系中的孩子带入新家庭而组成的家庭形态。
Symmetrical family: A concept by Willmott and Young describing a family in which roles and responsibilities are increasingly shared equally between husbands and wives.
对称家庭：威尔莫特和杨提出的概念，描述夫妻之间角色和责任越来越趋于平均分担的家庭。
Patriarchy: A social system where men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property.
父权制：一个男性掌握主要权力并在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制方面占据主导地位的社会系统。
4. Education | 教育
Hidden curriculum: The informal learning that takes place in schools, including norms, values, and attitudes that are not part of the formal academic curriculum, such as punctuality and obedience to authority.
隐性课程：学校中正式学术课程之外的非正式学习，包括守时、服从权威等规范、价值观和态度。
Labelling: The process of attaching a definition or label to a student, which may influence how teachers perceive and treat them and, in turn, how the student sees themselves.
贴标签：给某个学生贴上某种定义或标签的过程，可能影响教师对该生的认知与对待方式，进而影响学生的自我认知。
Self‑fulfilling prophecy: When an initially false expectation leads to its own confirmation because the belief shapes behaviour in ways that make the expectation come true.
自我实现的预言：最初错误的期望因为信念引导行为而使该预言成真，从而获得自我确认。
Cultural capital: The non‑economic social assets, such as knowledge, language skills, and tastes, that can promote social mobility and educational success.
文化资本：能够促进社会流动和教育成功的非经济社会资产，例如知识、语言技能和品味。
Marketisation: The process of introducing market forces of choice and competition into education, encouraging schools to compete for students, as seen in league tables and open enrolment.
市场化：将选择和竞争的市场力量引入教育领域的过程，鼓励学校通过排名、开放招生等方式争夺学生。
5. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance: Any behaviour that violates the accepted social norms of a group or society; it does not have to be illegal, such as refusing to stand for a national anthem.
越轨：任何违反某个群体或社会所接受的社会规范的行为；不一定是非法的，例如拒绝起立奏国歌。
Crime: An act that breaks the formal written laws of a society and is punishable by the state.
犯罪：违反社会明文法律、可由国家予以惩罚的行为。
Anomie: A state of normlessness described by Durkheim, where society fails to regulate individuals' desires, often leading to increased deviance.
失范：涂尔干描述的“规范缺失”状态，在此状态下社会未能有效调节个体的欲望，常导致越轨增加。
White‑collar crime: Financially motivated, non‑violent crime typically committed by business professionals or government officials, such as fraud or embezzlement.
白领犯罪：由企业专业人士或政府官员实施的、出于经济动机的非暴力犯罪，如欺诈或挪用公款。
Moral panic: An intense public concern about a particular issue or group, often exaggerated by the media, that threatens the social order.
道德恐慌：公众对某一议题或群体的强烈忧虑，常被媒体夸大，被认为会威胁社会秩序。
6. Research Methods | 研究方法
Primary data: Information collected directly by the researcher for the specific purpose of their study, for example through questionnaires, interviews, or observations.
一手数据：研究者为其研究的特定目的而直接收集的信息，例如通过问卷、访谈或观察。
Secondary data: Data that already exists and was collected by someone else, such as official statistics, historical documents, or previous research findings.
二手数据：已存在并由他人收集的数据，如官方统计数据、历史文献或以往的研究成果。
Qualitative data: Non‑numerical, in‑depth data that captures people's attitudes, feelings, and experiences; often gathered through open‑ended questions or participant observation.
定性数据：捕捉人们态度、感受和经历的非数值深度数据；常通过开放性问题或参与观察收集。
Quantitative data: Numerical data that can be statistically analysed to identify patterns and trends; typically gathered from surveys with closed questions.
定量数据：可进行统计分析以识别模式和趋势的数值数据；通常来自封闭式问题的调查。
Validity: The extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure; a valid study produces a true picture of social reality.
效度：研究方法在多大程度上测量了它声称要测量的对象；高效度的研究能描绘出社会现实的真实图景。
Reliability: The consistency of a research instrument; reliable methods produce the same results when repeated under similar conditions.
信度：研究工具的一致性；可靠的方法在相似条件下重复使用时会产生相同的结果。
7. Culture and Identity | 文化与身份认同
Culture: The whole way of life of a particular society or group, including its language, beliefs, norms, values, and material objects.
文化：特定社会或群体的整体生活方式，包括其语言、信仰、规范、价值观和物质物品。
Norms: Unwritten rules and expectations of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a given culture, such as queuing in line or saying 'please'.
规范：在特定文化中被视为可接受的不成文行为规则和期待，例如排队或说“请”。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is good, right, and important; they provide the foundation for norms and guide our moral choices.
价值观：关于何为正确、善良和重要的深层信念；为规范提供基础并指导我们的道德选择。
Subculture: A smaller cultural group within a larger culture that shares distinctive norms, values, and lifestyles while still being part of the mainstream.
亚文化：存在于更大文化之中的较小文化群体，拥有独特的规范、价值观和生活方式，同时仍隶属于主流。
Identity: How individuals see and define themselves, shaped by factors such as class, gender, ethnicity, age, and sexual orientation.
身份认同：个体如何看待和定义自己，受到阶级、性别、族群、年龄和性取向等因素的塑造。
8. Socialisation | 社会化
Socialisation: The lifelong process of learning the norms, values, and behaviours appropriate to one's society.
社会化：学习适应所在社会的规范、价值观和行为的终身过程。
Primary socialisation: The early childhood learning that takes place within the family, where basic language, manners, and core values are acquired.
初级社会化：发生在家庭内部的儿童早期学习，此时习得基本语言、礼仪和核心价值观。
Secondary socialisation: The learning that occurs beyond the family, through schools, peer groups, media, and workplaces, building on primary socialisation.
次级社会化：在家庭之外发生的社会学习，通过学校、同伴群体、媒体和工作场所展开，建立在初级社会化基础之上。
Agencies of socialisation: The social institutions and groups that carry out socialisation, including family, education, religion, mass media, and peer groups.
社会化机构：实施社会化的社会制度与群体，包括家庭、教育、宗教、大众传媒和同伴群体。
Nature versus nurture debate: A classic argument discussing whether human behaviour is determined by biological inheritance (nature) or by social environment and learning (nurture).
先天与后天之争：一场经典争论，探讨人类行为是由生物遗传（先天）决定还是由社会环境与学习（后天）决定。
9. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power: The ability of an individual or group to make others do something they would not otherwise do, even against their will.
权力：个人或群体使他人做出本不会做出的行为的能力，即使违背其意愿。
Authority: Power that is considered legitimate by those over whom it is exercised; people consent to authority because they believe it is right.
权威：被行使对象认为是合法的权力；人们同意权威是因为他们相信这是正当的。
Coercion: The use of force or threats to make people comply; unlike authority, coercion is not based on consent.
强制：使用武力或威胁迫使人们服从；与权威不同，强制并不基于同意。
Traditional authority: Max Weber's term for authority based on long‑standing customs and traditions, such as that of a tribal chief or a monarch.
传统型权威：马克斯·韦伯提出的术语，指基于长期习俗和传统的权威，例如部落酋长或君主的权威。
Legal‑rational authority: Authority that stems from a system of established laws and procedures; power resides in the office, not the person.
法理型权威：源于既定法律和程序体系的权威；权力在于职位而非个人。
Charismatic authority: Authority derived from an individual's extraordinary personal qualities, which inspire devotion and obedience.
魅力型权威：源于个人非凡品质的权威，能激发他人的忠诚与服从。
10. Social Change | 社会变迁
Social change: Significant alterations over time in behaviour patterns, cultural values, and social institutions.
社会变迁：行为模式、文化价值和社会制度随时间的重大变化。
Modernisation: The transformation from a traditional, rural, agrarian society to an urban, industrial, and secular one, accompanied by technological advances.
现代化：从传统的乡村农业社会向都市的、工业的和世俗化社会的转型，伴随着科技进步。
Globalisation: The increasing interconnectedness of societies across the world through flows of capital, trade, information, and culture.
全球化：世界各地社会通过资本、贸易、信息和文化的流动而日益相互联系的过程。
Social movement: An organised effort by a large group of people to promote or resist change in society, such as the civil rights movement or environmental activism.
社会运动：一大群人为了推动或抵制社会变革而有组织地进行的努力，如民权运动或环保行动。
Demographic change: Changes in the structure of a population, such as birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, and ageing populations, which affect social life.
人口变迁：人口结构的变化，如出生率、死亡率、迁移模式以及老龄化人口，这些都会影响社会生活。
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