📚 Year 9 CCEA Psychology: Formulas & Principles Quick Reference Handbook | Year 9 CCEA 心理学：公式定理速查手册
Psychology may be the science of mind and behaviour, but it still has its own essential 'formulas' and 'laws' - from calculating the mean in an experiment to understanding the stages of memory. This quick reference handbook brings together the must-know numerical formulas, key definitions, and foundational theories for Year 9 CCEA Psychology. Whether you are revising research methods, social influence, or cognitive development, use this guide to test yourself and build confidence.
心理学虽然是研究心智与行为的科学，但它同样拥有专属的“公式”与“定律”——从实验中计算平均数，到理解记忆的阶段划分。这本速查手册为你梳理了 Year 9 CCEA 心理学必须掌握的数值公式、核心定义与基础理论。无论你正在复习研究方法、社会影响还是认知发展，都可以借助本手册进行自测并提升信心。
1. Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode | 集中趋势测量：平均数、中位数、众数
The mean is the arithmetic average of a data set. You calculate it by adding up all the values (Σx) and dividing by the number of values (n). The median is the middle score when data are arranged in order; if there are two middle numbers, average them. The mode is the value that appears most frequently.
平均数是数据集的算术平均值，计算方法是把所有数值相加 (Σx) 再除以数值的个数 (n)。中位数是将数据按顺序排列后位于正中间的数；如果中间有两个数，则取它们的平均数。众数是出现次数最多的那个数值。
Mean = Σx / n
In psychological research, the mean is often used to summarise questionnaire scores or reaction times, but it can be pulled out of shape by extreme scores (outliers). For skewed data, the median is often a more honest 'typical' value. The mode is handy for nominal data, such as the most frequent attachment type in a strange situation.
在心理学研究中，平均数常用来汇总问卷得分或反应时间，但极端值（离群值）可能使其失真。对于偏态数据，中位数往往能给出更真实的“典型值”。众数则适用于称名数据，例如陌生情境中最常见的依恋类型。
2. Measures of Spread: Range | 离散度测量：极差
The range is the simplest measure of dispersion. It describes how much the scores in a data set are spread out.
极差是最简单的离散度测量指标，用来描述数据集中分数分布的跨度。
Range = Highest score - Lowest score
For example, if the longest recall in a memory test was 14 words and the shortest was 4 words, the range is 10 words. A small range suggests consistent results, while a large range indicates high variability. However, the range only looks at the two ends and ignores everything in between. Psychologists therefore often pair it with the mean to give a more complete picture.
例如，如果记忆测验中最高回忆量是 14 个词，最低是 4 个词，那么极差就是 10 个词。极差小说明结果比较一致，极差大则表明变动性高。但极差只关注两端数据，而忽略了中间的所有信息。因此心理学家通常将它与平均数结合，以呈现更全面的情况。
3. Percentages and Percentage Change | 百分比与百分比变化
Percentages allow psychologists to express a result as a fraction of 100, making it easier to compare groups of different sizes. Percentage change tells you how much a value has increased or decreased relative to its original amount.
百分比能让心理学家将结果表示为分母为 100 的分数，便于比较不同大小的群体。百分比变化则能告诉你某个值相对于原始值增加或减少了多少。
Percentage (%) = (Part / Whole) × 100
Percentage change = (New value - Original value) / Original value × 100
ent on conformity: in the control condition 15 out of 50 participants conformed, giving 30%. In the experimental condition 27 out of 50 conformed, giving 54% The percentage change from control to experimental condition is (54 - 30) / 30 × 100 = 80%. This clearly shows the impact of the independent variable.
设想一个从众实验：在控制条件下，50 名参与者中有 15 人从众，即 30%。在实验条件下，50 人中有 27 人从众，比例为 54%。从控制条件到实验条件的百分比变化为 (54 - 30) / 30 × 100 = 80%。这清楚地显示出自变量所产生的影响。
4. The Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) | 记忆的多存储模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
This foundational model describes memory as consisting of three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows linearly through the stores, and rehearsal helps transfer items from STM into LTM.
这个基础模型将记忆描述为三个独立的存储库：感觉登记、短期记忆 (STM) 和长期记忆 (LTM)。信息在这些存储库中线性流动，而复述有助于将短时记忆中的内容转入长时记忆。
The key features of each store can be summarised in a quick-reference table:
每个存储库的关键特征可借助下面的速查表格来总结：
| Store | Capacity | Duration | Encoding |
| Sensory register | Very large | 0.5 – 2 seconds | Sense-specific (e.g., iconic, echoic) |
| Short-term memory | 7 ± 2 chunks | Approx. 18 – 30 seconds | Mainly acoustic |
| Long-term memory | Potentially unlimited | Potentially a lifetime | Mainly semantic |
The model has been criticised for being too simplistic – it suggests memory works in a rigid, one-way sequence, and it overstates the role of rehearsal. Nevertheless, it remains an excellent starting point for understanding how we process information.
该模型因过于简单而受到批评——它暗示记忆是按固定、单向的序列运作的，且夸大了复述的作用。尽管如此，它仍然是理解人类如何处理信息的绝佳起点。
5. Variables and Experimental Design | 变量与实验设计
In any experiment you manipulate one thing and measure another. The independent variable (IV) is the factor the researcher deliberately changes, while the dependent variable (DV) is what is measured to see the effect. All other variables that could affect the DV are called extraneous variables and must be controlled.
在任何实验中，你都要操纵一个因素并测量另一个因素。自变量 (IV) 是研究者有意改变的变量，因变量 (DV) 则是为观察效应而测量的因素。其他所有可能影响因变量的变量都属于额外变量，必须加以控制。
Experiments can use an independent groups design (different participants in each condition) or a repeated measures design (same participants in all conditions). Independent groups avoid order effects but need more participants; repeated measures are economical but risk practice and fatigue effects.
实验可以采用独立组设计（每种条件使用不同参与者）或重复测量设计（同一群参与者参加所有条件）。独立组设计能避免顺序效应，但需要更多参与者；重复测量则比较节省人力，但存在练习效应和疲劳效应的风险。
6. Ethical Principles: BPS Guidelines | 伦理原则：英国心理学会指南
All psychological research in the UK must follow the ethical guidelines set out by the British Psychological Society (BPS). Four key principles form the backbone of ethical decision-making:
英国所有心理学研究都必须遵守英国心理学会 (BPS) 制定的伦理指南。以下四项核心原则构成了伦理决策的支柱：
- Informed consent – participants must agree to take part knowing the true aims and procedures, wherever possible.
- 知情同意 – 参与者应在了解真实目的和程序的前提下同意参加，只要情况允许。
- Protection from harm – researchers must not cause physical or psychological distress; any risk should be no greater than everyday life.
- 避免伤害 – 研究者不得造成身体或心理上的痛苦；任何风险都不应超过日常生活中遇到的强度。
- Right to withdraw – participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.
- 退出权 – 参与者可以在任何时候退出研究，不受任何处罚。
- Confidentiality – personal data must be anonymised and kept secure.
- 保密 – 个人数据必须匿名处理并安全保存。
If researchers need to use deception, they must arrange an effective debrief at the end, explaining the true purpose and offering support.
如果研究者需要使用欺骗手段，则必须在实验结束时进行有效的任务报告，说明真实目的并提供支持。
7. Social Influence: Conformity (Asch, 1951) | 社会影响：从众 (Asch, 1951)
Solomon Asch's line judgement experiment showed that people often conform to an obviously wrong majority to avoid standing out. In the original study, around 75% of participants conformed at least once, and the average conformity rate across critical trials was about 37%.
所罗门·阿希的线段判断实验表明，为了不显得突出，人们往往会屈从于明显错误的大多数。在最初的研究中，约 75% 的参与者至少从众过一次，而所有关键试次中的平均从众率约为 37%。
Conformity is strengthened when the group is larger (up to about 3–5 people), when it is unanimous, and when the participant feels less confident. There are two main types: informational social influence (wanting to be right) and normative social influence (wanting to be liked).
当群体规模较大（约 3–5 人）、态度一致，以及参与者自信心较低时，从众行为会更强。从众主要有两种类型：信息性社会影响（希望正确）和规范性社会影响（希望被喜欢）。
8. Social Influence: Obedience (Milgram, 1963) | 社会影响：服从 (Milgram, 1963)
Stanley Milgram's obedience study revealed that 65% of participants delivered what they believed to be a fatal 450-volt shock to a 'learner' simply because an authority figure instructed them to continue. This highlighted the powerful impact of legitimate authority on destructive obedience.
斯坦利·米尔格拉姆的服从研究揭示，有 65% 的参与者仅仅因为权威人物要求他们继续，就对“学习者”施予了他们认为是致命的 450 伏电击。这突显了合法权威对破坏性服从的强大影响。
Obedience dropped when the authority figure was not present (e.g., phone instructions), when the setting moved from the prestigious Yale University to a run-down office, or when the participant saw other people disobey. The agentic state – where we act as an agent for someone else – helps explain why ordinary people can do harmful things under orders.
当权威人物不在场（如通过电话下达指令）、实验地点从声望极高的耶鲁大学移至一个破旧办公室，或是参与者看到他人不服从时，服从程度都会下降。代理人状态——即我们作为他人的代理人而行动——有助于解释为什么普通人也会在命令之下做出伤害行为。
9. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget proposed that children's thinking develops through four distinct stages, each characterised by new logical abilities.
让·皮亚杰提出，儿童的思维发展会经历四个性质不同的阶段，每个阶段都以新的逻辑能力为特征：
| Stage | Approximate age | Key feature |
| Sensorimotor | 0 – 2 years | Object permanence – knowing objects exist even when out of sight |
| Pre-operational | 2 – 7 years | Egocentrism and lack of conservation; animism |
| Concrete operational | 7 – 11 years | Conservation, decentration, logical thought about concrete objects |
| Formal operational | 11+ years | Abstract reasoning, hypothesis testing, metacognition |
A child in the pre-operational stage will typically say a tall, thin beaker contains more water than a short, wide beaker even when they saw the water poured across – a classic failure of conservation. Piaget's theory has been influential but may have underestimated younger children's abilities.
前运算阶段的儿童通常会认为高而细的烧杯里的水比矮而宽的烧杯里的水更多，即使他们亲眼看到了倒水的过程——这是典型的缺乏守恒能力。皮亚杰的理论影响深远，但可能低估了年幼儿童的能力。
10. Attachment: The Strange Situation (Ainsworth, 1978) | 依恋：陌生情境法 (Ainsworth, 1978)
Mary Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation' is a controlled observation that assesses the quality of an infant's attachment to a caregiver. The procedure involves a series of separations and reunions between the infant, caregiver, and a stranger, with key observations made during the reunion episodes.
玛丽·安斯沃斯的“陌生情境”是一种控制式观察，用来评估婴儿对照料者的依恋质量。实验程序包括一系列婴儿、照料者和陌生人之间的分离与重聚，关键在于对重聚阶段的观察。
Three main attachment types are typically identified:
通常能识别出三种主要的依恋类型：
- Secure (Type B): Infant uses caregiver as a safe base, shows moderate distress on separation, and is easily soothed on reunion. (Approximately 65–70%)
- 安全型 (Type B)：婴儿将照料者视为安全基地，分离时表现出中等程度的痛苦，重聚时容易被安抚。（约占 65–70%）
- Insecure-avoidant (Type A): Infant avoids contact with the caregiver, shows little distress on separation, and ignores the caregiver on return. (Approx. 20–25%)
- 不安全-回避型 (Type A)：婴儿回避与照料者的接触，分离时表现冷淡，重聚时忽视照料者。（约占 20–25%）
- Insecure-resistant/ambivalent (Type C): Infant clings to the caregiver, becomes extremely distressed on separation, and resists comfort on reunion. (Approx. 10–15%)
- 不安全-矛盾/抗拒型 (Type C)：婴儿紧紧缠着照料者，分离时极其痛苦，重聚时又抗拒安抚。（约占 10–15%）
The Strange Situation has been repeated across many cultures, helping psychologists understand how early social interactions shape emotional development.
陌生情境实验已经在多种文化中重复实施，帮助心理学家理解了早期社会互动如何塑造情绪发展。
Published by TutorHao | Psychology Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
或截图后用「扫一扫 → 相册」选择本图