📚 Year 9 WJEC Law: Quick Reference Formula & Principles Handbook | Year 9 WJEC 法律：公式定理速查手册
This handbook distils the core concepts in Year 9 WJEC Law into memorable 'formulas' and 'theorems' – adaptable statements that summarise how legal rules fit together. Use it as a quick retrieval guide for revision, to check your understanding of key elements, tests and principles. Think of each equation not as rigid mathematics but as a mental model for analysing legal problems.
本手册将 Year 9 WJEC 法律课程的核心概念提炼成便于记忆的“公式”和“定理”——这些可调整的表达式概括了法律规则如何组合在一起。你可以将它作为复习的快速检索指南，用来检查你对关键要素、检验标准和原则的理解。请将每一个等式都看作一个分析法律问题的思维模型，而不是僵硬的数学公式。
1. Criminal Liability Formula | 刑事责任公式
The classic structure of a criminal offence can be expressed as: Actus Reus + Mens Rea – the unlawful act and the guilty mind must exist at the same time, and no defence applies.
刑事犯罪的基本结构可以表示为：犯罪行为 + 犯罪意图 – 抗辩理由 = 有罪。违法行为和犯罪意图必须同时存在，而且没有任何抗辩理由成立。
Actus Reus + Mens Rea − Defence = Guilt
- Actus Reus: the physical act (or omission) that breaks the law.
- 犯罪行为：违法法规的身体动作（或不作为）。
- Mens Rea: the mental state required for the crime – intention, recklessness or negligence.
- 犯罪意图：该罪行要求的心理状态——故意、轻率或疏忽。
- Defence: a legally recognised reason why the defendant should not be held liable (e.g. self-defence, duress).
- 抗辩理由：法律认可的原因，说明被告不应被追究责任（例如，自我防卫、胁迫）。
2. Causation Chain | 因果关系链
Before liability can be established, the prosecution must prove that the defendant's conduct caused the harm. This is shown through a two-part test of factual and legal causation.
在确定责任之前，控方必须证明被告的行为造成了伤害。这通过事实因果关系和法律因果关系的两部分检验来展示。
Factual Causation + Legal Causation = Causation Proved
- Factual causation: 'But for' the defendant's act, would the harm have occurred? (R v White)
- 事实因果关系：“若非”被告的行为，伤害会发生吗？(R v White)
- Legal causation: Was the defendant's act the 'operating and substantial' cause of the harm? (R v Smith)
- 法律因果关系：被告的行为是否是伤害的“有效且实质”的原因？(R v Smith)
- A new intervening act (novus actus interveniens) can break the chain – for example, an unforeseeable third-party act or an extraordinarily reckless medical procedure.
- 一个新的介入行为可以打破因果链——例如，不可预见的第三方行为或极度鲁莽的医疗程序。
3. Actus Reus Components | 犯罪行为要素
The prohibited conduct can be broken down into three possible forms: an action, an omission in specific circumstances, or a state of affairs.
被禁止的行为可以分解为三种可能的形式：一个行为、特定情形下的不作为，或一种持续状态。
Actus Reus = Voluntary Act / Omission / State of Affairs
- Voluntary act: a deliberate bodily movement (e.g. striking someone).
- 自愿行为：有意识的身体动作（例如，击打他人）。
- Omission: failure to act only if there is a legal duty (contract, relationship, public office, voluntary assumption, creation of danger).
- 不作为：只有存在法律义务时才构成不作为（合同、关系、公职、自愿承担、制造危险）。
- State of affairs: a continuing situation, like being found drunk in charge of a vehicle, where no act is required.
- 持续状态：一种持续的情形，例如被发现醉酒照管车辆，此时无需任何积极行为。
4. Mens Rea Spectrum | 犯罪意图谱系
Courts use a scale of mental states to determine the degree of blameworthiness. The highest form is direct intention, descending through oblique intention and recklessness to gross negligence.
法院使用一套心理状态等级来判断可归责的程度。最高等级是直接故意，往下经过间接故意、轻率，直至严重过失。
Direct Intention → Oblique Intention → Recklessness → Negligence
- Direct intention: the defendant’s aim or purpose was to bring about the consequence.
- 直接故意：被告的目的或目标是实现该结果。
- Oblique intention: the consequence was a virtually certain outcome of the act and the defendant appreciated this (R v Woollin).
- 间接故意：该结果是行为的几乎必然结果，并且被告意识到了这一点 (R v Woollin)。
- Recklessness: the defendant foresaw an unjustified risk and took it anyway.
- 轻率：被告预见到了一个不合理的风险，却仍然去冒险。
- In some offences, a lower standard of negligence (breach of a duty of care) is sufficient.
- 在某些罪行中，较低的过失标准（违反注意义务）就足够了。
5. Defences Equation | 抗辩计算公式
Even if the actus reus and mens rea are proved, a defendant can avoid liability by raising a complete or partial defence. Think of it as subtracting an applicable defence from the total.
即使犯罪行为和犯罪意图被证实，被告也可以通过提出完全或部分抗辩来免责。可以把它想象成从整体中减去一项适用的抗辩。
Total Liability − Recognised Defence = Outcome
- Self-defence: reasonable force used to protect oneself, another or property. Must be necessary and proportionate.
- 自我防卫：使用合理的武力保护自己、他人或财产。必须必要且相称。
- Duress: the defendant was forced to commit the crime under threat of death or serious injury (not available for murder).
- 胁迫：被告在死亡或严重伤害的威胁下被迫犯罪（不适用于谋杀）。
- Intoxication: may remove intent only if it was involuntary; voluntary intoxication rarely negates basic intent crimes.
- 醉酒：仅在非自愿醉酒的情况下可能排除故意；自愿醉酒极少否定基本故意犯罪。
6. Negligence Formula | 过失侵权公式
The tort of negligence compensates harm caused by careless behaviour. All three elements must be present.
过失侵权是对由粗心行为造成的伤害进行赔偿。三个要素必须全部具备。
Duty of Care + Breach + Damage = Negligence
- Duty of care: the 'neighbour' principle from Donoghue v Stevenson – you must take reasonable care to avoid acts that could foreseeably injure your neighbour.
- 注意义务：来自 Donoghue v Stevenson 案的“邻人”原则——你必须采取合理注意，避免可以预见会伤害邻人的行为。
- Breach: the defendant fell below the standard of the reasonable person in the same situation.
- 违反义务：被告的行为低于处于同一情境中的理性人的标准。
- Damage: the breach caused foreseeable loss or injury that is not too remote.
- 损害：该违反行为导致了可预见的损失或伤害，且因果关系不太遥远。
7. Contract Formation Formula | 合同成立公式
A legally binding agreement is formed when certain ingredients are met. The classic formula captures the essential requirements.
当满足一定条件时，就形成了具有法律约束力的协议。经典公式概括了基本要求。
Offer + Acceptance + Consideration + Intention = Contract
- Offer: a clear statement of willingness to be bound on specific terms, as opposed to an invitation to treat.
- 要约：清楚表明愿意按特定条件受约束的陈述，有别于要约邀请。
- Acceptance: unqualified agreement to all the terms of the offer, communicated to the offeror (postal rule may apply).
- 承诺：对要约全部条款的无条件同意，并传达给要约人（可能适用邮寄规则）。
- Consideration: each party must give something of value in exchange – it can be a benefit to one or a detriment to the other.
- 对价：每一方都必须给予某种有价值之物作为交换——可以是给一方的利益或给另一方的损害。
- Intention to create legal relations: there is a presumption against social/domestic agreements and in favour of commercial ones.
- 设立法律关系的意图：推定社会/家庭协议不具有此项意图，商业协议具有此项意图。
8. Sources of Law Table | 法律渊源一览
English and Welsh law comes from several distinct sources. The following table shows the main categories and their characteristics.
英格兰和威尔士的法律来源于几个不同的渊源。下表展示了主要类别及其特征。
| Source | Description | Example |
| Parliament (Statute) | Acts passed by the House of Commons, House of Lords and given Royal Assent. Supreme source. | Theft Act 1968 |
| Common Law (Precedent) | Law developed by judges through decisions in reported cases, following the doctrine of stare decisis. | Donoghue v Stevenson |
| Human Rights Act 1998 | Incorporates the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law. Courts must read statutes compatibly where possible. | Right to a fair trial (Article 6) |
| EU Retained Law | Certain EU laws preserved in UK law after Brexit, unless amended or repealed. | Working Time Regulations |
| Custom | Ancient, continuous, reasonable and certain practices that acquire legal force. | Local customary rights |
Parliament remains sovereign; statutes can override judge-made law except where human rights compatibility requires a declaration of incompatibility.
议会仍然拥有主权；除了在需要通过人权法做出不一致宣告的情况下，法令可以推翻法官制定的法律。
9. Court Hierarchy and Precedent | 法院层级与先例
The doctrine of binding precedent (stare decisis) depends on a clear court ranking. Decisions of courts higher in the structure must be followed by those below.
约束性先例原则依赖于明确的法院等级。下级法院必须遵循上级法院的判决。
e Court (formerly House of Lords) → Court of Appeal → High Court → Crown Court/Magistrates
- The Supreme Court binds all lower courts but may depart from its own previous decisions under the 1966 Practice Statement.
- 最高法院约束所有下级法院，但可以根据1966年实践声明偏离自己先前的判决。
- Court of Appeal (Civil and Criminal) is bound by the Supreme Court and binds the High Court and below. It has limited power to depart from its own past decisions (Young v Bristol Aeroplane exceptions).
- 上诉法院（民事和刑事）受最高法院约束，并约束高等法院及下级法院。它偏离自身以往判决的权力有限（Young v Bristol Aeroplane例外）。
- High Court decisions do not bind other High Court judges but are strongly persuasive. They bind County Court and magistrates.
- 高等法院的判决不约束其他高等法院法官，但具有很强的说服力。它们约束郡法院和治安法官。
- The Crown Court is mainly a trial court; its rulings on a point of law may be persuasive but rarely set binding precedent.
- 刑事法院主要是审判法院；其在法律问题上的裁决可能具有说服力，但很少形成约束性先例。
10. Rule of Law Principles | 法治原则
The UK's unwritten constitution rests on the rule of law. This can be expressed as a set of core maxims that limit arbitrary power.
英国的不成文宪法以法治为基础。这可以用一套限制专断权力的核心准则来表达。
Law is Supreme → No Arbitrary Power → Equality Before the Law
- No one is above the law: all persons and government bodies are subject to the same legal framework.
- 没有人凌驾于法律之上：所有人和政府机构都受同一法律框架约束。
- Legal certainty: the law must be accessible, clear and predictable so that people can plan their affairs.
- 法律确定性：法律必须是可获得的、清晰的、可预见的，以便人们安排自己的事务。
- Fair and impartial hearings: access to justice and independent courts (expressed in Article 6 ECHR / Human Rights Act).
- 公正无偏的庭审：司法可及性与独立法院（见《欧洲人权公约》第6条/《人权法》）。
- Judicial review allows courts to check the legality of government action, ensuring public bodies do not exceed their powers.
- 司法审查允许法院核查政府行为的合法性，确保公共机构不超越权限。
11. Human Rights Act 1998 Key Principles | 1998年《人权法》关键原则
The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates most of the European Convention on Human Rights. Judges use interpretative techniques to protect rights effectively.
1998年《人权法》将《欧洲人权公约》的大部分条款纳入国内法。法官使用解释方法来有效保护权利。
HRA 1998 = Convention Right + Section 3 Interpretation + Section 4 Declaration
- Section 3: so far as it is possible, primary and subordinate legislation must be read and given effect in a way that is compatible with Convention rights.
- 第3条：必须尽可能地将主要立法和次级立法以符合公约权利的方式进行阅读和赋予效力。
- Section 4: if a compatible reading is not possible, a higher court may issue a 'declaration of incompatibility', signalling to Parliament that it should amend the law.
- 第4条：若无法做出符合性解读，高级法院可以签发“不一致宣告”，提示议会应当修订法律。
- Qualified rights (e.g. right to private life, Article 8) may be restricted if justified by law and necessary in a democratic society. The formula: restriction must be 'prescribed by law' + legitimate aim + proportionate.
- 有限制的权利（如私人生活权，第8条）如果为法律所规定且在民主社会中必要，可以被限制。公式：限制必须“由法律明文规定”+ 正当目的 + 相称性。
- Absolute rights (e.g. prohibition of torture, Article 3) cannot be limited in any circumstances.
- 绝对权利（如禁止酷刑，第3条）在任何情况下都不得被限制。
12. Key Legal Maxims | 重要法律格言
These short Latin phrases encapsulate legal presumptions and burdens. They function as 'theorems' guiding decision-making.
这些简短的拉丁短语概括了法律推定和举证责任。它们像“定理”一样指导决策。
| Maxim | Meaning |
| Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea | The act does not make a person guilty unless the mind is also guilty. |
| Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat | The burden of proof lies on the one who asserts, not who denies (prosecution duty to prove guilt). |
| Ignorantia juris non excusat | Ignorance of the law is no excuse. |
| Nemo tenetur se ipsum accusare | No one is bound to accuse himself (right to silence). |
These principles are built into the fabric of fair procedure and criminal trials. In exam answers, referring to a relevant maxim can show deeper understanding.
这些原则构成公正程序与刑事审判的基础。在考试答卷中引用相关的格言可以显示更深的理解。
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