📚 Year 9 WJEC Sociology: Quick Reference Handbook of Formulas and Theorems | Year 9 WJEC 社会学：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your handy revision companion for Year 9 WJEC Sociology. This quick reference guide distills essential sociological theories and research methods into easy-to-remember formulas and theorems. Use it to strengthen your understanding of how society works, how we study it, and how key concepts connect with each other.
欢迎使用这本Year 9 WJEC社会学速查手册。我们将核心社会学理论和研究方法提炼成易于记忆的公式与定理，帮助你快速把握社会运作的规律、研究方式以及关键概念之间的关联。
1. The Sociological Imagination | 社会学想象力
The sociological imagination, coined by C. Wright Mills, is the ability to link personal troubles with public issues. It shows that individual lives cannot be understood without looking at the wider society. The formula is: Personal Trouble + Historical Context = Sociological Insight.
社会学想象力由C. Wright Mills提出，指将个人烦恼与公共议题联系起来的能力。它表明，理解个体生活必须结合更广阔的社会背景。其公式为：个人困扰 + 历史背景 = 社会学洞见。
Applying this theorem means asking questions such as ‘Is my unemployment a personal failure or part of an economic crisis?’ It transforms private problems into sociological puzzles.
运用这一定理，意味着我们要追问：‘我的失业是个人失败，还是经济危机的一部分？’ 社会学想象力将私人问题转化为社会学谜题。
2. Functionalism Theorem | 功能主义定理
Functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts, each performing a function to maintain stability. The core theorem can be stated as: Social Order = Institutions + Value Consensus.
功能主义把社会看作由相互关联的部分组成的系统，每个部分都为维持稳定发挥功能。其核心定理可表述为：社会秩序 = 制度 + 价值共识。
Stability = Family + Education + Religion + Work + Value Consensus
稳定 = 家庭 + 教育 + 宗教 + 工作 + 价值共识
For example, the family provides primary socialisation, education prepares children for adult roles, and shared values like achievement hold society together. When all parts perform, society is like a healthy organism.
例如，家庭提供初级社会化，教育为儿童成为成人准备角色，而成就等共享价值观使社会凝聚。当所有部分都正常运作时，社会就如健康的有机体。
3. Conflict Theory Theorem | 冲突理论定理
Conflict theory, inspired by Karl Marx, argues that society is shaped by economic conflict between social classes. The fundamental theorem is: Economic Base → Superstructure.
受马克思启发的冲突理论认为，社会由阶级之间的经济冲突塑造。其基本原理为：经济基础 → 上层建筑。
Base (Relations of Production) → Legal, Political, Educational Systems
基础（生产关系） → 法律、政治、教育体系
This means the way a society organises its economy (who owns factories, land, resources) determines the shape of its laws, schools, and even its family structures. Social change occurs when class contradictions erupt, leading to revolution.
这意味着，一个社会组织经济的方式（谁拥有工厂、土地和资源）决定了其法律、学校甚至家庭结构的形态。当阶级矛盾爆发时，社会变革便以革命形式发生。
4. Feminist Perspective Formulas | 女性主义视角公式
Feminist sociology centres on gender inequality. A key formula is: Gender Inequality = Patriarchy + Social Construction of Gender Roles.
女性主义社会学聚焦性别不平等。一个关键的公式是：性别不平等 = 父权制 + 性别角色的社会建构。
Patriarchy means a society where men hold primary power. Social construction means girls and boys are taught to behave differently. Therefore, inequality is not natural; it is created and can be changed.
父权制指男性掌握主要权力的社会。社会建构意味着女孩和男孩被教导要表现出不同的行为。因此，不平等并非天生，而是被创造的，因而可以改变。
Liberal feminists seek legal reform, while radical feminists argue that patriarchy must be dismantled entirely.
自由派女性主义者寻求法律改革，而激进女性主义者则主张彻底根除父权制。
5. Symbolic Interactionism Theorem | 符号互动论定理
Symbolic interactionism explains how people create meaning through everyday interactions. George Herbert Mead proposed that the self emerges socially: Self = 'I' + 'Me'.
符号互动论解释人们如何通过日常互动创造意义。乔治·赫伯特·米德提出，自我是在社会过程中形成的：自我 = '主我' + '客我'。
'I' is the spontaneous, creative part of the self; 'Me' is the internalised expectations of society. Together, they guide our behaviour. Interactions are based on shared symbols and interpretations.
‘主我’是自我中自发、创造性的部分；‘客我’是内化的社会期待。二者共同指引行为。互动建立在共享的符号和理解之上。
6. Research Method Formulas: Percentage and Mean | 研究方法公式：百分比与平均数
Sociologists use quantitative data. Two essential formulas in research are percentage and mean.
社会学家使用定量数据。研究中两个基本公式是百分比和平均数。
Percentage (%) = (Part / Whole) × 100%
百分比 (%) = (部分 / 总数) × 100%
Percentage helps compare groups fairly. For example, if 30 out of 50 boys pass a test, the percentage is 60%, compared to 24 out of 40 girls, which is also 60%. Without percentages, we might mistakenly think boys did better.
百分比有助于公平比较不同群体。例如，若50名男生中有30人通过考试，百分比为60%；40名女生中有24人通过，百分比同样为60%。不转换为百分比，我们可能误以为男生表现更佳。
Mean = Sum of Values / Number of Values
平均数 = 数值总和 / 数值个数
The mean shows the average trend but can be influenced by extreme scores. Always check the median and mode too.
平均数反映整体趋势，但易受极端值影响。务必同时关注中位数和众数。
7. Socialisation Formula: The Looking-Glass Self | 社会化公式：镜中我
Charles Cooley described how our self-concept develops through the looking-glass self. The formula is: Self-Concept = How We Imagine Others See Us + Our Reaction to That Perception.
查尔斯·库利描述了自我概念如何通过“镜中我”发展。公式为：自我概念 = 我们想象他人如何看待我们 + 我们对此看法的反应。
We imagine our appearance to another person, we imagine their judgment, and then we feel pride or shame. Socialisation continuously shapes identity through others' reflections.
我们想象自己在他人眼中的模样，想象他人的评价，然后感到自豪或羞愧。社会化不断通过他人的反射塑造着身份。
8. Social Stratification Formula: Class, Status and Power | 社会分层公式：阶级、地位与权力
Max Weber identified three dimensions of stratification. His multidimensional formula is: Life Chances = Class + Status + Party (Power).
马克斯·韦伯确立了分层的三个维度。他的多维公式为：生活机会 = 阶级 + 地位 + 党派（权力）。
Class is about economic position, status is about social prestige, and party refers to political influence. Unlike Marx, Weber argued that power does not just come from class.
阶级关乎经济地位，地位关乎社会声望，党派则指政治影响力。与马克思不同，韦伯认为权力并不仅仅源自阶级。
9. Cultural Transmission Theorem: Norms and Values | 文化传递定理：规范与价值观
Culture is passed on through socialisation. We can express it as: Culture = Norms + Values + Material Artefacts.
文化通过社会化传递。我们可以表述为：文化 = 规范 + 价值观 + 物质人造物。
Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour, values are shared beliefs about what is good, and material artefacts are physical objects like clothing and technology. Together they define a society's way of life.
规范是不成文的行为规则，价值观是关于是非好坏的共同信念，物质人造物则是服装、技术等实物。三者共同定义了一个社会的生活方式。
10. Social Control Formula: Sanctions and Rewards | 社会控制公式：奖惩机制
Social control ensures people follow norms. The formula is: Social Control = Formal Sanctions + Informal Sanctions.
社会控制确保人们遵守规范。公式为：社会控制 = 正式制裁 + 非正式制裁。
Formal sanctions come from official systems like schools and courts. Informal sanctions come from peer pressure, family praise, or gossip. Positive sanctions reward behaviour; negative sanctions punish deviation.
正式制裁来自学校、法庭等官方系统。非正式制裁来自同伴压力、家庭表扬或闲言碎语。正面制裁奖励行为；负面制裁惩罚越轨。
11. Education and Social Mobility Formula | 教育与社会流动公式
Sociologists study how education affects life chances. Pierre Bourdieu's cultural capital theory yields this formula: Educational Achievement = Cultural Capital + Economic Capital.
社会学家研究教育如何影响生活机会。布迪厄的文化资本理论得出公式：教育成就 = 文化资本 + 经济资本。
Cultural capital includes knowledge, language skills, and tastes valued by the school system. Middle-class families often possess more of this, giving their children an advantage. Therefore, education can reproduce inequality rather than reduce it.
文化资本包括被学校体系看重的知识、语言技能和品味。中产阶级家庭通常拥有更多文化资本，使子女获得优势。因此，教育可能再生产不平等，而非消除它。
12. Research Ethics Formula | 研究伦理公式
Ethical research is central to sociology. The formula is: Ethical Research = Informed Consent + Confidentiality + Avoidance of Harm.
伦理研究在社会学中至关重要。公式为：伦理研究 = 知情同意 + 保密 + 避免伤害。
Informed consent means participants understand the study and agree voluntarily. Confidentiality means their data is protected. Avoiding harm includes psychological and physical well-being. Sociologists must balance scientific goals with participants' rights.
知情同意指参与者理解研究内容并自愿同意参与。保密指保护其数据。避免伤害包括心理和身体福祉。社会学家必须在科学目标与参与者权利之间取得平衡。
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