📚 Year 9 WJEC Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 9 WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册
This handbook brings together the essential models, principles, and empirical regularities that Year 9 WJEC Psychology students need to recall quickly. Each 'formula' or 'theorem' is explained in plain English and Chinese to strengthen revision and exam readiness.
本手册汇总了 Year 9 WJEC 心理学学生需要快速回顾的核心模型、原理与经验规律。每条“公式”或“定理”均以简单英文和中文解释，帮助巩固复习，提升考试准备。
1. Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) | 记忆的多储存模型
The Multi-Store Model proposes that memory consists of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows linearly from sensory memory to STM through attention, and from STM to LTM via rehearsal. Without rehearsal, information in STM decays or is displaced.
多储存模型提出，记忆由三个独立的储存库组成：感觉记忆、短期记忆（STM）和长期记忆（LTM）。信息通过注意从感觉记忆线性地进入短期记忆，再通过复述从短期记忆转入长期记忆。如不复述，短期记忆中的信息就会消退或被新信息排挤。
apacity of about 7±2 items and a duration of 18-30 seconds. LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and duration.
感觉登记器的容量极大，但信息保存时间不到半秒（图像记忆）或2-3秒（声象记忆）。短期记忆容量有限，约为7±2个项目，持续时间为18-30秒。长期记忆的容量和持续时间可能是无限的。
The model follows a structural formula: Input → Sensory Memory → Attention → STM ←→ Rehearsal → LTM. Rehearsal serves as the control process that maintains information in STM and transfers it to LTM.
该模型遵循一个结构公式：输入 → 感觉记忆 → 注意 → 短期记忆 ←→ 复述 → 长期记忆。复述作为控制过程，既能将信息保持在短期记忆中，又能将其转入长期记忆。
2. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch) | 工作记忆模型
The Working Memory Model replaces the idea of a single STM store with a multi-component system. The central executive directs attention and coordinates two slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. Later, the episodic buffer was added to integrate information across modalities and link to LTM.
工作记忆模型用一个多成分系统取代了单一的短期记忆储存库。中央执行系统引导注意并协调两个从属系统：语音回路和视空间画板。后来增加了情景缓冲器，用于整合不同模态的信息并与长期记忆联结。
Formula-style relationships: : Working Memory = Central Executive + Phonological Loop + Visuospatial Sketchpad + Episodic Buffer. The phonological loop handles speech-based information through phonological store (inner ear) and articulatory control process (inner voice). The visuospatial sketchpad deals with visual and spatial data (inner eye).
类似公式的关系：工作记忆 = 中央执行系统 + 语音回路 + 视空间画板 + 情景缓冲器。语音回路通过语音储存（内耳）和发音控制过程（内语）处理言语信息。视空间画板则处理视觉和空间数据（内眼）。
Key capacity principle: each slave system can function independently, so two tasks using different components (e.g., a verbal and a visual-spatial task) can be performed concurrently with little interference. This dual-task performance provides evidence for the separate subsystems.
关键容量原理：每个从属系统可独立运作，因此使用不同成分的两个任务（如言语任务和视觉空间任务）可以同时进行而干扰很小。这种双任务表现证明了分离子系统的存在。
3. Memory Capacity and Duration Formulas | 记忆容量与持续时间公式
Miller' ize of a chunk depends on meaningful grouping. For example, the sequence 1-9-4-5 can be chunked as a single date '1945'.
米勒定律：短期记忆容量 = 7 ± 2 个组块。组块的大小取决于有意义的组合。例如，数字序列1-9-4-5可被组块为单个日期“1945”。
18-30 seconds. After 18 seconds, recall drops sharply, demonstrating the rapid decay of unrehearsed information in STM.
彼得森夫妇持续时间规律：无复述的短期记忆持续时间 ≈ 18-30秒。超过18秒后，回忆率急剧下降，说明未复述的信息在短期记忆中迅速消退。
For LTM, Bahrick et al. showed very long duration: after 50 years, participants recognised about 90% of high school classmates' names and faces, suggesting an almost permanent LTM store for well-learned material.
在长期记忆中，Bahrick等研究者证明持续时间极长：50年后，被试可再认约90%的高中同学姓名和面孔，表明对充分学习的材料，长期记忆储存几乎是永久的。
4. Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
The Forgetting Curve describes the exponential decay of memory retention over time. Ebbinghaus found that forgetting is rapid soon after learning, then levels off. The mathematical pattern: roughly 50% of learned information is lost within the first hour, and about 70% is lost after 24 hours if there is no rehearsal.
遗忘曲线描述了记忆保持随时间呈指数衰减。艾宾浩斯发现，学习后初期遗忘很快，随后趋于平缓。数学模式大致为：约50%的信息在学习后第一小时内被遗忘，如果不经复述，24小时后约遗忘70%。
The saving score formula: ng = (Time for original learning - Time for relearning) / Time for original learning × 100%. This measures how much information is retained even when it cannot be consciously recalled.
节省分数公式：节省分数 = (初次学习时间 - 重学时间) / 初次学习时间 × 100%。即使信息无法有意识地回忆，该指标也能衡量出了多少信息被保留。
5. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段
Piaget's theory states that children progress through four invariant stages. The age ranges and defining cognitive achievements form a developmental 'formula':
皮亚杰理论指出，儿童按顺序经历四个不变的阶段。年龄范围和关键认知成就构成了发展“公式”：
- Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Object permanence develops around 8 months. Infants learn through senses and actions.
- Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking emerges; animism, egocentrism, and lack of conservation dominate.
- Concrete operational (7-11 years): Logical reasoning about concrete events; conservation, reversibility, and classification are mastered.
- Formal operational (11+ years): Abstract and hypothetical thinking, systematic problem-solving.
- 感觉运动阶段（0-2岁）：约8个月发展出客体永久性。婴儿通过感觉和动作学习。
- 前运算阶段（2-7岁）：出现符号思维；以泛灵论、自我中心、缺乏守恒为特征。
- 具体运算阶段（7-11岁）：能对具体事件进行逻辑推理；掌握守恒、可逆性和分类。
- 形式运算阶段（11岁以上）：抽象和假设思维，系统化解决问题。
The conservation principle (e.g., volume, number, mass) can be expressed as: Perceptual transformation ≠ physical change. Children in the preoperational stage fail to understand this invariance.
守恒原理（如体积、数量、质量）可表达为：知觉变化 ≠ 物理变化。前运算阶段的儿童无法理解这种不变性。
6. Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) | 维果茨基的最近发展区
The ZPD formula: ZPD = What a learner can do with help − What the learner can do alone. It represents the gap between independent problem-solving and potential development under adult guidance or peer collaboration.
最近发展区公式：ZPD = 学习者在他人的帮助下能做到的 − 学习者独自能做到的。它代表独立解决问题与在成人指导或同伴合作下潜在发展之间的差距。
Scaffolding is the support provided within the ZPD. Effective scaffolding follows the principle: Offer just enough assistance to allow the learner to progress, then gradually withdraw support. This is called the 'fading' technique.
支架式教学是在最近发展区内提供的支持。有效支架遵循这一原理：给予刚好足够的帮助让学习者进步，然后逐步撤除支持。这称为“渐隐”技术。
7. Asch's Conformity Experiments | 阿希从众实验
Asch's baseline formula for conformity: in a group of confederates giving an obviously wrong line-judgement answer, about 37% of critical trials produced conformity. 76% of participants conformed at least once. The main situational factors that increase conformity are unanimity, group size (up to 3-5), and task difficulty.
阿希的从众基线公式：在一群给出明显错误线段判断的假被试中，约37%的关键试次出现了从众。76%的被试至少从众一次。增加从众的主要情境因素是一致性、群体大小（直到3-5人）和任务难度。
The normative social influence equation: Conformity = Need for social approval × Perceived group pressure. People comply publicly but may not change their private beliefs. Informational social influence leads to private acceptance when the situation is ambiguous.
规范社会影响公式：从众 = 对社会认可的需求 × 感知到的群体压力。人们公开服从但未必改变内在信念。信息性社会影响在情境不明确时导致私下接受。
8. Milgram's Obedience Study | 米尔格拉姆服从研究
Milgram's shocking outcome: 65% of participants delivered the maximum 450-volt shock when ordered by an authority figure, despite the 'learner's' apparent distress. This demonstrates the power of the agentic state – individuals see themselves as agents of the authority, thus not responsible for their actions.
米尔格拉姆令人震惊的结果：65%的被试在权威人物命令下给出了最高450伏电击，尽管“学习者”显得极度痛苦。这证明了代理人状态的力量——个体将自己视为权威的代理人，因此不对自身行为负责。
The obedience determinants can be summarised as: proximity of victim, proximity of authority, prestige of the setting, and presence of disobedient peers. When two confederates refused, obedience dropped to 10%.
服从决定因素可总结为：受害者接近程度、权威接近程度、实验场所的声望、以及是否存在不服从的同伴。当有两名假被试拒绝时，服从率降至10%。
9. Social Learning Theory (Bandura) | 社会学习理论 (班杜拉)
Bandura's formula for observational learning: Learning = Attention + Retention + Reproduction + Motivation. Individuals observe a model, store the behaviour symbolically, have the physical capability to reproduce it, and must be motivated by anticipated reinforcement.
班杜拉的观察学习公式：学习 = 注意 + 保持 + 复制 + 动机。个体观察榜样，以符号形式储存行为，具备再现行为的身体能力，并必须受到预期强化的激励。
Bobo doll experiments demonstrated that children who observed an aggressive model were significantly more likely to imitate physical and verbal aggression. Vicarious reinforcement is the key mechanism: seeing a model rewarded increases imitation, seeing a model punished decreases it.
波波玩偶实验证明，观察到攻击榜样的儿童明显更倾向模仿身体和言语攻击。替代强化是关键机制：看到榜样受到奖励会增加模仿，看到榜样受到惩罚则减少模仿。
10. Gibson's Direct Theory of Perception | 吉布森的直接感知理论
Gibson argued that perception is direct and does not require complex mental inference. The optic array provides sufficient information. Key percepts come from optic flow patterns, texture gradients, motion parallax, and affordances. The formula: Perception = Pick-up of invariant information from the environment.
吉布森认为，知觉是直接的，不需要复杂的心理推理。光阵列提供充足信息。关键知觉来源于光流模式、纹理梯度、运动视差和供给物。公式为：知觉 = 从环境中拾取不变信息。
An affordance is what the environment 'offers' the animal – a chair affords sitting, a door handle affords grasping. This concept links perception to action without internal representation. Gibson's theory contrasts with Gregory's Constructivist Theory, which requires top-down processing and hypothesis testing.
供给物是环境“提供”给动物的可能行动——椅子提供坐着，门把手提供抓握。这一概念将知觉与行动联系起来，无需内部表征。吉布森的理论与格里高利的建构理论形成对比，后者要求自上而下的加工和假设检验。
11. Research Methods: Variables and Hypotheses | 研究方法：变量与假设
The experimental formula: Effect = (IV level 1 - IV level 2) on the DV. The independent variable (IV) is manipulated; the dependent variable (DV) is measured. All other variables should be controlled (CV) to avoid confounding.
实验公式：效应 = (自变量水平1 - 自变量水平2) 在因变量上的表现。自变量（IV）被操纵；因变量（DV）被测量。所有其他变量应控制为控制变量（CV），以避免混淆。
Hypotheses: an experimental (alternative) hypothesis predicts a difference or relationship. A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis states the expected direction, e.g., 'Students who sleep 8 hours score higher on memory tests than those who sleep 5 hours.' A null hypothesis states there is no difference or relationship.
假设：实验假设（备择假设）预测差异或关系。方向性（单尾）假设陈述预期方向，例如：“睡眠8小时的学生在记忆测试中得分高于睡眠5小时的学生。”零假设则陈述没有差异或关系。
Standardised procedures and random allocation are critical control techniques. The formula for unbiased sampling: random sample ensures every member of the target population has an equal chance of selection.
标准程序与随机分配是关键技术。无偏抽样公式：随机样本确保目标总体中每个成员有均等机会被抽中。
12. Ethical Principles in Psychology | 心理学伦理原则
The BPS Code of Ethics can be summarised as: Respect + Competence + Responsibility + Integrity. Key rules include informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, deception only when justified, and confidential data handling.
英国心理学会伦理准则可概括为：尊重 + 能力 + 责任 + 诚信。关键规则包括知情同意、退出权、免受伤害保护、只在必要时使用欺骗，以及保密数据处理。
Risk-benefit theorem: research should only proceed if potential benefits > potential risks. Cost-benefit analysis is conducted by ethics committees. A debrief formula: Debrief = Reveal aims + Restore well-being + Offer withdrawal of data + Provide support.
风险-收益定理：研究只有在潜在收益 > 潜在风险时才可进行。伦理委员会进行成本收益分析。事后解释公式：事后解释 = 揭示目的 + 恢复良好状态 + 允许撤回数据 + 提供支持。
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