📚 Year 9 AQA Psychology: Core Knowledge Review | Year 9 AQA 心理学：核心知识点梳理
This article provides a comprehensive review of the key topics in the Year 9 AQA Psychology curriculum. From memory and perception to social influence and research methods, we will explore the core concepts that form the foundation for further study at GCSE and beyond.
本文全面梳理了 Year 9 AQA 心理学课程的关键主题。从记忆和感知到社会影响与研究方法，我们将探索那些为 GCSE 及更高层次学习奠定基础的核心概念。
1. Introduction to Psychology | 心理学简介
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour. It seeks to understand why we think, feel, and act the way we do, using empirical evidence.
心理学是对心理和行为的科学研究。它旨在通过实证证据来理解我们为什么思考、感受和行动的方式。
Psychologists use different approaches, such as biological, cognitive, and social perspectives, to explain human behaviour.
心理学家使用不同的取向，如生物学、认知和社会视角，来解释人类行为。
The discipline relies on research methods to test hypotheses and build theories, ensuring that findings are based on evidence rather than intuition.
该学科依赖研究方法来检验假设并构建理论，确保发现是基于证据而非直觉。
2. Memory: The Multi-Store Model | 记忆：多存储模型
The Multi-Store Model (MSM) of memory was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). It describes memory as consisting of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
记忆的多存储模型（MSM）由 Atkinson 和 Shiffrin（1968）提出。它将记忆描述为由三个独立的存储库组成：感觉记忆、短期记忆（STM）和长期记忆（LTM）。
Information flows through these stores in a linear sequence, but can be lost if not attended to or rehearsed.
信息按线性顺序流经这些存储库，但如果没有被注意或复述，就可能丢失。
- Sensory memory holds information from the senses for a very brief duration (less than a second for visual information). It has a large capacity.
- 感觉记忆以极短的持续时间（视觉信息不到一秒）保存来自感官的信息。它的容量很大。
- TM) can hold around 7 ± 2 chunks of information for about 18-30 seconds, unless rehearsed.
- 短期记忆（STM）可以保持大约 7±2 个组块的信息，持续时间约 18-30 秒，除非进行复述。
- Maintenance rehearsal keeps information in STM and can transfer it to long-term memory (LTM).
- 维持性复述使信息保持在短期记忆中，并能将其转入长期记忆（LTM）。
- Long-term memory has potentially unlimited capacity and duration, storing knowledge, experiences, and skills.
- 长期记忆具有潜在的无限容量和持续时间，储存着知识、经验和技能。
The serial position effect supports the MSM: when recalling a list, people tend to remember the first (primacy) and last (recency) items better. Primacy occurs because those words have been rehearsed and transferred to LTM; recency because they are still in STM.
系列位置效应支持了 MSM：在回忆列表时，人们往往对开头（首因）和结尾（近因）的项目记忆较好。首因效应是因为这些词经过了复述并转入了 LTM；近因效应是因为它们仍在 STM 中。
3. Memory: Types of Amnesia | 记忆：遗忘症类型
Amnesia is a loss of memory. There are two main types: anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia.
遗忘症是记忆的丧失。主要分为两种类型：顺行性遗忘症和逆行性遗忘症。
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new long-term memories after brain injury. This is often caused by damage to the hippocampus, preventing the transfer from STM to LTM.
顺行性遗忘症是指脑损伤后无法形成新的长期记忆。这通常是由于海马体受损，阻碍了信息从 STM 向 LTM 的转移。
This supports the Multi-Store Model's idea that STM and LTM are separate stores, because sufferers can still hold information in STM but cannot consolidate it into LTM.
这支持了多存储模型中 STM 和 LTM 是独立存储库的观点，因为患者仍然可以在 STM 中保持信息，但无法将其巩固到 LTM 中。
Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memories formed before the injury, often for a period of time preceding the incident. It indicates that LTM retrieval can be disrupted while storage may remain intact.
逆行性遗忘症是指丢失脑损伤前形成的记忆，通常是事件发生前的一段时间。这表明 LTM 的提取过程可能被打乱，而存储本身可能完好无损。
4. Perception: Visual Illusions | 感知：视错觉
Perception is how we interpret and make sense of sensory information. Visual illusions occur when our perception does not match the physical reality of a stimulus.
感知是我们如何解释和理解感觉信息的过程。视错觉发生在我们的感知与刺激的物理现实不匹配的时候。
They demonstrate that perception is an active process of construction, rather than a direct recording of the world.
它们表明感知是一个主动建构的过程，而不是对世界的直接记录。
The Müller-Lyer illusion shows two lines with arrowheads pointing inwards and outwards; the line with inward-pointing fins appears longer, even though they are the same length.
缪勒-莱尔错觉显示两条线，箭头向内和向外；箭头指向内的那条线看起来更长，尽管两者长度相同。
This illusion can be explained by size constancy scaling or depth cues (misapplied constancy scaling). The brain interprets the inward fins as an inside corner, which is perceived as closer, making the line seem longer.
这种错觉可以用大小恒常性缩放或深度线索（错误应用的恒常性缩放）来解释。大脑将向内的箭头解释为内角，感知为更近，从而使线条看起来更长。
5. Perception: Gregory's Constructivist Theory | 感知：格雷戈里的建构理论
Richard Gregory (1970) proposed the constructivist theory of perception, arguing that perception is a construction of the brain based on past experience, expectations, and inferences.
理查德·格雷戈里（1970）提出了感知的建构理论，认为感知是大脑基于过去经验、期望和推断进行的一种建构。
He suggested that we use visual cues to form hypotheses about what we see, and these hypotheses are tested against incoming sensory data. Illusions occur when the brain makes incorrect inferences.
他认为我们利用视觉线索形成关于所见之物的假设，并利用传入的感觉数据来检验这些假设。当大脑做出不正确的推断时，错觉就发生了。
Gregory's theory is supported by ambiguous figures like the Necker cube, where perception spontaneously switches between two possible interpretations.
格雷戈里的理论得到了如内克尔立方体等模糊图形的支持，在这些图形中感知会自发地在两种可能的解释之间切换。
However, critics argue that it underestimates the role of innate visual processing and direct perception (Gibson's ecological theory).
然而，批评者认为该理论低估了先天视觉加工和直接感知的作用（吉布森的生态理论）。
6. Social Influence: Conformity | 社会影响：从众
Conformity is a type of social influence where an individual changes their behaviour or beliefs to match those of a group, often due to real or imagined pressure.
从众是一种社会影响，个体改变其行为或信念以符合群体，往往出于真实或想象的压力。
Kelman (1958) identified three types of conformity:
Kelman (1958) 确定了三种从众类型：
- Compliance: publicly agreeing with the group but privately disagreeing; it lasts only while the group is present.
- 依从：公开同意群体但私下并不同意；仅在群体在场时持续。
- Identification: adopting the group's views to establish a relationship, but the views may not be fully internalised.
- 认同：采取群体的观点以建立关系，但这些观点可能并未完全内化。
- Internalisation: accepting the group's beliefs both publicly and privately, so they become part of your own value system.
- 内化：公开和私下都接受群体的信念，使其成为自身价值体系的一部分。
Asch's (1951) line judgment study showed normative social influence: participants conformed to an obviously incorrect majority to avoid standing out. Conformity decreased when there was a dissenter or when answers were written privately.
Asch (1951) 的线条判断研究展示了规范性社会影响：参与者为了不显得突出而遵从明显错误的多数意见。当有反对者或私下作答时，从众会减少。
7. Social Influence: Obedience | 社会影响：服从
Obedience is a form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order from an authority figure.
服从是一种社会影响形式，
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