📚 Year 9 Edexcel Sociology Key Terminology Quick Study Guide | Year 9 Edexcel 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the foundational vocabulary of sociology gives you a powerful lens to understand how society works. This guide presents key terms in paired English–Chinese explanations, helping Year 9 Edexcel students memorise and apply sociological concepts with confidence. Each section breaks down a core theme, from socialisation to research methods, with clear definitions and practical examples directly linked to the Edexcel specification.
掌握社会学基础词汇能为你提供理解社会运作的有力视角。本指南以英汉配对释义的方式呈现关键术语，帮助 Year 9 Edexcel 学生自信地记忆和应用社会学概念。每个部分围绕一个核心主题展开，从社会化到研究方法，均配有清晰的释义和切合 Edexcel 考试大纲的实际例子。
1. What is Sociology? | 什么是社会学？
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social behaviour. It examines how individuals interact within groups, institutions and wider social structures. Sociologists investigate patterns of social life, seeking to understand why people behave as they do and how societies maintain stability or undergo change.
社会学是对人类社会和社会行为进行的系统研究。它考察个体如何在群体、制度以及更广泛的社会结构中互动。社会学家探究社会生活的模式，力图理解人们为何如此行事，以及社会如何维持稳定或发生变化。
Social structure refers to the organised pattern of social relationships and institutions that together compose society. It includes families, education systems, the economy and the political system, all of which shape our experiences and opportunities.
社会结构是指构成社会的各种社会关系和制度的有组织模式。它包括家庭、教育制度、经济和政治体制，所有这些都塑造了我们的经历和机会。
Social institution is an established and enduring pattern of social relationships, such as the family, religion, education or the legal system. Institutions provide frameworks that guide behaviour and meet societal needs.
社会制度是一种已经确立且持久的社会关系模式，例如家庭、宗教、教育或法律体系。这些制度提供了指导行为、满足社会需求的框架。
2. Key Concepts: Culture, Norms and Values | 核心概念：文化、规范与价值观
Culture is the entire way of life of a group of people. It includes language, beliefs, customs, traditions, art, music, food and dress. Culture is learned and shared, passed down from one generation to the next through socialisation.
文化是一个人群的整体生活方式。它包括语言、信仰、习俗、传统、艺术、音乐、食物和服饰。文化是习得和共享的，通过社会化代代相传。
Norms are the unwritten rules that govern social behaviour in specific situations. They tell us what is considered acceptable and unacceptable in our society. For example, queuing in an orderly fashion is a social norm in many cultures.
规范是管控特定情境下社会行为的不成文规则。它们告诉我们社会认为什么是可以接受的、什么是不可以接受的。例如，在许多文化中，有序排队就是一种社会规范。
Values are the shared beliefs about what is good, right and desirable. They provide the general guidelines for behaviour. Examples include honesty, respect for elders, freedom and equality.
价值观是人们关于什么是好的、正确的和值得追求的共同信念。它们为行为提供总体指引。例子包括诚实、尊敬长辈、自由和平等。
Subculture is a group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms, values and lifestyle, while still sharing some elements of the mainstream culture. Teenage subcultures, for example, may have unique fashion and music tastes.
亚文化是较大文化中的一个群体，拥有自己独特的规范、价值观和生活方式，同时仍共享主流文化的某些元素。例如，青少年亚文化可能拥有独特的时尚与音乐品味。
Cultural diversity refers to the variety of cultures and subcultures that exist within a society. Societies with high cultural diversity often have people from different ethnic, religious and linguistic backgrounds.
文化多样性是指一个社会内存在的各种文化和亚文化的差异性。文化多样性较高的社会往往拥有来自不同族群、宗教和语言背景的人。
3. Socialisation: Primary and Secondary | 社会化：初级社会化与次级社会化
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society – its norms, values, language and behaviours. It enables people to become functioning members of society.
社会化是一个持续终生的过程，个体通过它学习所处社会的文化——包括规范、价值观、语言和行为。它使人们能够成为能正常行事的成员。
Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood, usually within the family. It is where children learn basic norms and values, language, and how to interact emotionally. The family is often described as the primary agent of socialisation.
初级社会化发生在幼年时期，通常是在家庭内部。儿童在此阶段学习基本的规范与价值观、语言以及如何与他人进行情感互动。家庭常被描述为初级社会化机构。
Secondary socialisation takes place later in childhood and continues throughout life. It is carried out by institutions such as schools, peer groups, the media and the workplace. Through secondary socialisation, individuals learn the rules and expectations of wider society.
次级社会化发生在童年后期并延续终生。它由学校、同辈群体、媒体和工作场所等机构来实施。通过次级社会化，个体学习更广泛社会的规则和期望。
Agents of socialisation are the individuals, groups and institutions that carry out the socialisation process. Key agents include family, education, religion, peer groups and mass media.
社会化机构是实施社会化过程的个人、群体和制度。关键的机构包括家庭、教育、宗教、同辈群体和大众传媒。
4. Social Roles and Status | 社会角色与地位
A social role is the pattern of behaviour expected of a person who occupies a particular social position. Each role carries a set of rights, duties and norms. For instance, the role of a student involves attending lessons, completing assignments and following school rules.
社会角色是对占据特定社会位置的人所期望的行为模式。每一种角色都附带一组权利、义务和规范。例如，学生的角色包括上课、完成作业和遵守校规。
Status refers to the social position a person holds within a group or society. Status can be ascribed – assigned at birth, such as sex or ethnicity – or achieved, gained through personal effort, like becoming a doctor or an athlete.
地位是指个人在群体或社会中所处的社会位置。地位可以是先赋的——出生时即被赋予，如性别或种族——也可以是自致的，通过个人努力获得，例如成为医生或运动员。
Role conflict occurs when a person faces incompatible demands from two or more roles they hold. For example, a parent who is also a full-time employee may experience conflict between childcare responsibilities and work deadlines.
角色冲突发生在一个人所承担的两个或多个角色的要求不相容时。例如，一位又是全职员工的家长，可能会在育儿责任与工作截止期限之间经历冲突。
Role model is a person whose behaviour is admired and imitated by others. Role models can be family members, teachers, celebrities or fictional characters. They often influence young people's aspirations and conduct.
角色模范是其行为被他人赞赏并模仿的人。角色模范可以是家庭成员、老师、名人或虚构人物。他们常常影响年轻人的志向和行为。
5. Social Control: Formal and Informal | 社会控制：正式与非正式
Social control refers to the methods used by a society to regulate people's behaviour and ensure conformity to norms and values. It can be formal or informal.
社会控制是指社会用来规范人们行为、确保遵循规范和价值观的方法。它可以是正式的或非正式的。
Formal social control involves written rules and laws enforced by official agencies such as the police, courts and prisons. Punishments for breaking formal rules may include fines, community service or imprisonment.
正式社会控制涉及由官方机构（如警察、法院和监狱）执行的成文规则和法律。违反正式规则的惩罚可能包括罚款、社区服务或监禁。
Informal social control is exercised through unwritten social norms and is enforced by individuals and groups, such as family, friends and the community. Methods include praise, criticism, gossip or exclusion.
非正式社会控制通过不成文的社会规范来实施，并由家庭、朋友和社区等个人和群体来执行。方法包括表扬、批评、闲言碎语或排斥。
Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to enforce norms. Positive sanctions reward conformity (e.g. a certificate for good attendance), while negative sanctions punish deviance (e.g. a detention for bad behaviour).
制裁是用来执行规范的奖励或惩罚。正面制裁奖励遵从行为（如为良好出勤颁发证书），而负面制裁惩罚越轨行为（如因不良行为被留校）。
6. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes or other divisions based on factors like wealth, power and prestige. It describes how society is structured unequally.
社会分层是基于财富、权力和声望等因素，将个体划分为社会阶级、种姓或其他等级层次的结构。它描述了社会如何按照不平等的方式被建构。
Social class is a group of people sharing a similar economic position, typically measured by income, occupation and education. In the UK, class distinctions are often described as upper, middle and working class.
社会阶级是指经济地位相似的一群人，通常以收入、职业和教育来衡量。在英国，阶级划分常被描述为上流阶级、中产阶级和工人阶级。
Life chances refer to the opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life, such as access to good education, healthcare and housing. These chances are strongly influenced by social class, gender and ethnicity.
生活机会是指个体提高其生活质量的机会，例如获得良好教育、医疗和住房的可能性。这些机会深受社会阶级、性别和种族的影响。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between social strata. Upward mobility means moving to a higher social class, while downward mobility is a fall in class position. Societies with high social mobility are often seen as more meritocratic.
社会流动是指个人或群体在社会阶层之间的移动。向上流动指进入到更高的社会阶级，而向下流动则是阶级地位的下降。社会流动高的社会通常被视为更加精英化的。
7. Families and Households | 家庭与住户
A family is a group of people related by blood, marriage or adoption who usually live together and share emotional and economic bonds. The nuclear family consists of two parents and their children, while an extended family includes other relatives.
家庭是由血缘、婚姻或收养关系联结的一群人，他们通常住在一起，并分享情感和经济纽带。核心家庭由父母双方及其子女组成，而扩展家庭则包括其他亲属。
A household is a person living alone or a group of people who share the same living accommodation, regardless of whether they are related. A household may contain one family, multiple families or unrelated individuals.
住户是指独自居住或共享同一居住场所的一群人，无论他们是否有亲属关系。一个住户可能包含一个家庭、多个家庭或无亲属关系的个人。
Monogamy is the practice of being married to only one person at a time. It is the most common form of marriage in modern Western societies.
一夫一妻制是每次只与一人结婚的实践。它是现代西方社会中最常见的婚姻形式。
Conjugal roles refer to the roles played by husbands and wives within the household. Joint conjugal roles involve sharing domestic tasks and decision-making, while segregated conjugal roles mean separated responsibilities along traditional gender lines.
夫妻角色是指丈夫和妻子在家庭内部所扮演的角色。共同夫妻角色指分担家务和共同决策，而分隔夫妻角色则意味着按照传统的性别分工各自承担不同的责任。
8. Education as an Agent of Socialisation | 教育作为社会化机构
Education is a major agent of secondary socialisation. It transmits knowledge, skills and cultural values from one generation to the next. Schools also teach norms such as punctuality, obedience and cooperation.
教育是次级社会化的主要机构。它把知识、技能和文化价值观从一代传递给下一代。学校还教授准时、服从和合作等规范。
The hidden curriculum refers to the informal lessons taught in schools that are not part of the official academic curriculum. It includes values like respect for authority, competitiveness and learning to accept hierarchy.
隐性课程是指学校中教授的、不属于正式学术课程的非正式内容。它包括尊重权威、竞争意识以及学会接受等级等价值观。
Meritocracy is the belief that individuals achieve positions and rewards through their own abilities and hard work, rather than through inherited privilege. Education systems are often seen as a means to achieve a meritocratic society.
精英治理是一种信念，认为个体通过自身能力和努力而非继承特权获得地位和回报。教育制度常被视为实现精英治理社会的手段。
Streaming is the practice of dividing students into different groups or classes based on perceived ability. While it aims to tailor teaching, critics argue it can reinforce inequality and limit pupils' opportunities.
按能力分班是根据学生的感知能力将他们分入不同组别或班级的做法。尽管其目的是因材施教，但批评者认为这会加剧不平等并限制学生的机会。
9. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance refers to behaviour that violates social norms. Not all deviance is criminal – for example, wearing unusual clothes may be deviant but not illegal. Deviance is culturally defined; what is deviant in one society may be acceptable in another.
越轨是指违反社会规范的行为。并非所有越轨行为都是犯罪——例如，穿着不寻常的衣服可能被视为越轨，但并不违法。越轨由文化所界定；在某一社会中被视为越轨的行为，在另一社会中可能被接受。
Crime is an act that breaks the formal, written laws of a society and is punishable by the legal system. Examples include theft, assault and fraud.
犯罪是违反社会正式成文法并由法律系统予以惩罚的行为。例子包括盗窃、袭击和诈骗。
Anomie is a state of normlessness in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, anomie can arise during periods of rapid social change, leading to increased deviance.
失范是一种规范缺失的状态，在此状态下社会几乎不为个体提供道德指引。根据社会学家埃米尔·涂尔干的观点，失范可能出现在社会急剧变迁的时期，从而引起越轨行为增加。
Labelling theory suggests that deviance is not inherent in an act, but is the result of society's reaction to that act. Once a person is labelled as deviant, they may accept the label and continue the behaviour – this is called a self-fulfilling prophecy.
标签理论认为，越轨并非行为本身固有的属性，而是社会对该行为反应的结果。一旦一个人被贴上越轨者的标签，他可能接受这一标签并继续该行为——这被称为自我实现的预言。
10. Research Methods in Sociology | 社会学研究方法
Sociologists use a range of research methods to collect data about social life. These methods can be divided into quantitative and qualitative approaches.
社会学家使用一系列研究方法来收集关于社会生活的数据。这些方法可分为定量研究与定性研究两类。
Quantitative data is numerical information that can be measured and analysed statistically. Surveys and official statistics are common sources. Quantitative research seeks to identify patterns and correlations across large populations.
定量数据是可测量并进行统计分析的数值信息。调查和官方统计数据是常见的来源。定量研究旨在识别大规模人口中的模式和相关性。
Qualitative data is non-numerical information that provides depth and detail about people's experiences and meanings. Methods include in-depth interviews, participant observation and analysis of documents. This approach helps sociologists understand the reasons behind behaviour.
定性数据是非数值的信息，它提供关于人们经历和意义的深度与细节。方法包括深度访谈、参与式观察和文献分析。这一方法有助于社会学家理解行为背后的原因。
Ethical considerations are moral principles that guide research conduct. Sociologists must obtain informed consent, protect participants' anonymity, avoid harm and respect confidentiality. Research involving vulnerable groups requires extra care.
伦理考量是指导研究行为的道德原则。社会学家必须获得知情同意，保护参与者的匿名性，避免伤害并尊重保密性。涉及弱势群体的研究需要特别谨慎。
11. Gender and Identity | 性别与身份认同
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women. It differs from sex, which is based on biological differences. Gender norms are learned through socialisation.
性别是指社会建构的、被社会认为适合男性和女性的角色、行为和特质。它不同于基于生物学差异的生理性别。性别规范通过社会化习得。
Gender socialisation is the process through which individuals learn the expected behaviours associated with their gender. Toys, media and family interactions often reinforce traditional gender roles from an early age.
性别社会化是指个体学习与其性别相关的预期行为的过程。玩具、媒体和家庭互动往往从幼年起便强化传统的性别角色。
Identity is a person’s sense of who they are, shaped by factors such as culture, ethnicity, class, gender and life experiences. Sociologists study how identity is formed and how it changes over time.
身份认同是一个人对自我是谁的感知，受文化、族群、阶级、性别和生活经历等因素的影响。社会学家研究身份认同如何形成以及如何随时间变化。
Social construction refers to the idea that many aspects of social life, including gender and identity, are creations of society rather than natural facts. Recognising social construction helps us challenge taken-for-granted assumptions.
社会建构是指社会生活中的许多方面，包括性别和身份认同，都是社会的创造而非自然事实的观念。认识到社会建构有助于我们质疑被认为是理所当然的假设。
12. Power, Authority and the State | 权力、权威与国家
Power is the ability of an individual or group to achieve their will, even in the face of opposition. Sociologists examine how power operates in families, schools, workplaces and the political system.
权力是个人或群体实现其意愿的能力，即使面临反对仍可实现。社会学家考察权力如何在家庭、学校、职场和政治体系中运作。
Authority is legitimate power that is accepted as right and proper by those who are subject to it. Max Weber identified three types of authority: traditional, charismatic and legal-rational.
权威是被那些受其支配者视为正确且适当的合法权力。马克斯·韦伯识别出三种权威类型：传统型、魅力型和法理型。
The state is the set of institutions that exercise political authority over a defined territory. It includes the government, civil service, military and legal system. The state is responsible for making and enforcing laws.
国家是在一定领土上行使政治权威的一系列制度。它包括政府、公务员体系、军队和法律体制。国家负责制定和执行法律。
Citizenship is the status of being a member of a state, with rights such as voting and access to public services, and responsibilities such as obeying the law and paying taxes. Active citizenship involves participation in community and political life.
公民身份是指作为一个国家成员的地位，拥有投票和获得公共服务等权利，以及遵守法律和纳税等义务。积极的公民身份涉及对社区和政治生活的参与。
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