📚 GCSE Philosophy Key Terms Memory Guide | GCSE哲学关键词汇速记指南
Welcome to this memory guide for Year 9 OCR Philosophy. Understanding key terms is the first step to building clear and persuasive arguments. Each term below is explained in simple English, followed by its Chinese translation, along with a memory aid to help you recall it quickly for your assessments.
欢迎使用这本针对 Year 9 OCR 哲学的术语速记指南。理解关键术语是构建清晰且有说服力的论证的第一步。下方每个术语都以简单的英文解释，随后提供中文翻译，并附带记忆辅助，帮助你快速回忆，顺利应对测评。
1. What is Philosophy? | 什么是哲学？
Philosophy | 哲学
Philosophy comes from Greek words meaning 'love of wisdom' answer fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, morality, and the mind. Remember: 'Philo-' = love, '-sophy' = wisdom.
哲学源自希腊语，意为“热爱智慧”。它是一种运用理性去回答关于存在、知识、道德和心灵等根本问题的活动。记忆：“Philo-”表示爱，“sophy”表示智慧。
Argument | 论证
reasons to support another (the conclusion). Think: argument = reasons leading to a claim.
在哲学中，论证不是吵架，而是一组陈述，其中一些（前提）作为理由来支持另一个陈述（结论）。记法：论证 = 理由通向主张。
Premise & Conclusion | 前提与结论
A premise is a reason given in support of a conclusion. The conclusion is the statement that the premises are meant to prove. Visualise a house: premises are the foundations, the conclusion is the roof.
前提是为支持结论而提供的理由。结论是前提意图证明的陈述。想象房子：前提是地基，结论是屋顶。
2. Types of Reasoning | 推理类型
Deductive Reasoning | 演绎推理
e true. It goes from general rules to specific cases. Remember: Deduction = definite, like 'all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; thus Socrates is mortal'.
演绎推理旨在给出一个结论，如果前提为真，结论必然为真。它从一般规则推导到具体情况。记忆：演绎 = 确定，如“凡人皆死；苏格拉底是人；故苏格拉底必死”。
Inductive Reasoning | 归纳推理
es from specific observations to general conclusions, but the conclusion is not guaranteed—only probable. Think: induction = increasing probability, like 'the sun has risen every day, so it will rise tomorrow'.
归纳推理从具体的观察出发，得出一般性结论，但结论并不必然，只是很可能。记法：归纳 = 提升概率，如“太阳每天升起，所以明天也会升起”。
Abductive Reasoning | 溯因推理
Abduction infers the most likely explanation for an observation. It is reasoning to the best hypothesis. For instance, if you see wet grass, you abductively conclude it rained, because rain is the best explanation.
溯因推理推断出对观察到现象最可能的解释，即寻求最佳假设。例如，看到草地湿了，溯因地推断下过雨，因为下雨是最佳解释。
3. Validity, Soundness and Cogency | 有效性、可靠性与有力性
Validity | 有效性
not actual truth. A valid argument can have false premises. Key: valid = structure works.
在演绎论证中，有效性是指如果前提为真，结论必然为真。它关注逻辑结构，而非事实真假。一个有效的论证可以拥有假的前提。关键：有效 = 结构正确。
Soundness | 可靠性
be true. Sound = valid + true premises. Remember: SOUND arguments have SOUND foundations.
一个可靠的论证是有效且所有前提为真的论证。因此，结论保证为真。可靠 = 有效 + 真前提。记忆：可靠的论证有可靠的基础。
Cogency | 有力性
obable) and all premises are actually true. Think: cogent = compelling inductive argument.
有力性适用于归纳论证。如果归纳论证强而有力（前提使结论极可能为真），且所有前提实际为真，则该论证是有力的。记法：有力 = 令人信服的归纳论证。
4. Epistemology: Knowledge | 认识论：知识
Knowledge | 知识
Traditionally, knowledge is defined as 'justified true belief'. You know something if you believe it, it is true, and you have good reasons (justification) for believing it. Think J-T-B.
传统上，知识被定义为“经过证明的真信念”。你相信某事，它是真的，并且你有充分的理由（证明）去相信它，那就是知识。记住 J-T-B。
Belief | 信念
Belief is the mental state in which a person holds a proposition to be true. You can believe something without it being true or justified. Belief is a necessary part of knowledge, but not sufficient alone.
信念是指一个人认为某个命题为真的心理状态。你可以相信某事，而它未必为真或未必得到证明。信念是知识的必要组成部分，但单有信念还不够。
Truth | 真理
Philosophers debate what truth is. The most common view is the correspondence theory: a statement is true if it matches reality. 'Snow is white' is true if and only if snow is white. Truth is independent of what anyone believes.
哲学家对真理的定义争论不休。最常见的观点是符合论：一个陈述如果符合现实，则为真。“雪是白的”为真，当且仅当雪确实是白的。真理独立于任何人的信念。
Justification | 证明
cky guess; you need justification. Think: justification = good reasons, not just feelings.
证明是指支持信念的理由或证据。要拥有知识，你的真信念不能是碰巧猜中；你需要证明。记法：证明 = 充分的理由，而不是感觉。
5. Metaphysics: Reality | 形而上学：实在
Reality | 实在
Metaphysics asks: what is real? Is reality just physical stuff, or are there non-physical things like minds, numbers, or God? Metaphysics explores being, time, space, and causation.
形而上学问：什么是实在的？实在仅仅是物质性的东西，还是存在诸如心灵、数字或上帝之类的非物质事物？形而上学探索存在、时间、空间和因果关系。
Idealism | 唯心论
fundamentally mental or ideas. The physical world depends on minds. Bishop Berkeley argued 'to be is to be perceived'. Remember: ideal = ideas are primary.
唯心论认为，实在根本上是精神的或观念的。物理世界依赖于心灵。贝克莱主教论证“存在即被感知”。记忆：唯心 = 观念居首。
Materialism | 唯物论
ness, can be explained in material terms. Think: materialism = matter is all that matters.
唯物论主张只有物质的东西存在。一切，包括心灵和意识，都可以用物质的方式来解释。记法：唯物 = 物质即一切。
Dualism | 二元论
body is physical. Descartes famously defended dualism. Memory aid: dual = two substances.
二元论认为，心灵与身体是两种不同类型的实体。心灵是非物质的，身体是物质的。笛卡尔以捍卫二元论闻名。记忆辅助：二元 = 两种实体。
6. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
Theism, Atheism, Agnosticism | 有神论、无神论、不可知论
annot know whether God exists. Picture a spectrum: theist → agnostic → atheist. The prefix 'a-' means without.
有神论信仰一位或多位神。无神论抵制对神的信仰。不可知论宣称我们无法知道神是否存在。想象一个光谱：有神论→不可知论→无神论。前缀“a-”表示没有。
Teleological Argument | 设计论证
The teleological argument (or design argument) claims that order and purpose in the universe suggest an intelligent designer. 'Telos' means purpose or end. Paley's watchmaker analogy is a classic example.
设计论证（目的论论证）声称，宇宙中的秩序与目的暗示着一位智慧的设计者。“Telos”意为目的。佩利的钟表匠类比是经典范例。
Cosmological Argument | 宇宙论论证
The cosmological argument says that the universe must have a first cause or necessary being, which is God. It starts from the fact that everything exists and asks 'Why is there something rather than nothing?'.
宇宙论论证称，宇宙必有一个第一因或必然存在者，即上帝。它从万物存在的事实出发，问“为什么存在者在，而非一片虚无？”
7. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
This is the challenge: If God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good, why does evil exist? The logical problem says such a God would prevent evil; so either God lacks one of these attributes or does not exist.
这个挑战是：如果上帝全能、全知、全善，为何世间还存在恶？逻辑上的恶的问题说，这样的上帝会阻止恶；所以要么上帝缺少其中某个属性，要么不存在。
Theodicy | 神义论
A theodicy is an attempt to justify God' ee will defence says evil results from human misuse of free will, which is a greater good. 'Theo-' = God, '-dicy' = justice.
神义论是试图在恶存在的前提下为上帝的善辩护。例如，自由意志辩护说，恶源自人类滥用自由意志，而自由意志是更大的善。前缀“Theo-”=神，后缀“-dicy”=公正。
Free Will Defence | 自由意志辩护
The free will defence argues that moral evil is caused by human choices, not by God. God gave us free will because genuine love and goodness require freedom. Evil is the price of free will.
自由意志辩护主张，道德恶是由人类的选择造成的，而非上帝。上帝赐予我们自由意志，因为真正的爱和善需要自由。恶是自由意志的代价。
8. Ethical Theories | 伦理学理论
Utilitarianism | 功利主义
piness for the greatest number. It is a consequentialist theory: focus on outcomes. Think: 'usefulness' = utility, max pleasure.
功利主义认为，正确的行为是为最大多数人带来最大幸福的行为。它是一种后果论理论，关注结果。记忆：功用 = 功利，最大化快乐。
Deontology | 义务论
Deontology judges actions by rules and duties, not by consequences. Even if lying brings good results, it is wrong because it violates a moral rule. 'Deon' means duty. Kant is the principal deontologist.
义务论根据规则和义务来判断行为，而非后果。即使说谎带来好结果，也是错的，因为它违反了道德规则。“Deon”意为义务。康德是主要的义务论者。
Virtue Ethics | 美德伦理
Virtue ethics focuses on character, not individual actions. A moral person develops virtues like courage, honesty, and compassion. It asks: 'What would a virtuous person do?' Aristotle pioneered this approach.
美德伦理聚焦于品格，而非单个行为。一个有道德的人培养勇气、诚实和同情等美德。它问：“一个有美德的人会怎么做？”亚里士多德开创了这一进路。
Moral Relativism vs Absolutism | 道德相对主义与绝对主义
iples that apply everywhere. Memory: relativism = it depends; absolutism = always applies.
相对主义认为道德真理相对于文化、时代或个人。绝对主义声称存在普遍适用的道德原则。记忆：相对主义 = 视情况而定；绝对主义 = 永远适用。
9. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free Will | 自由意志
Free will is the ability to make choices that are not determined by prior causes. If you have free will, you could have done otherwise. It is closely linked to moral responsibility.
自由意志是指能够做出不受先前原因决定的选择的能力。如果你有自由意志，你本可以做出不同的选择。它与道德责任紧密相连。
Determinism | 决定论
Determinism claims that every event, including human actions, is caused by preceding events in accordance with natural laws. Therefore, free will is an illusion. 'Determined' means fixed by past states.
决定论声称，每一个事件，包括人类行为，都是由先前事件按照自然规律引起的。因此，自由意志是一种幻象。“决定”意味着被过往状态固定。
Compatibilism | 相容论
Compatibilism argues that free will and determinism are compatible. Freedom means acting according to your own desires, even if those desires are determined. It is also called soft determinism.
相容论认为，自由意志与决定论可以兼容。自由意味着按照自己的欲望行动，即使那些欲望是被决定的。它也被称为温和决定论。
Hard Determinism | 硬决定论
y responsible because all actions are caused beyond our control. Hard = no freedom at all.
硬决定论接受决定论并完全否认自由意志。它说我们并不具备道德责任，因为一切行为都由不由我们控制的原因造成。硬 = 毫无自由。
10. Mind and Body | 心身问题
Mind-Body Problem | 心身问题
The mind-body problem asks: how do mental states (thoughts, feelings) relate to physical states (brain, body)? Are they the same thing or different? It is the central puzzle in philosophy of mind.
心身问题问：心理状态（思想、感受）如何与物理状态（大脑、身体）相关联？它们是同一事物还是不同的？这是心灵哲学的核心难题。
Substance Dualism | 实体二元论
Substance dualism, defended by Descartes, says mind and body are two wholly different substances. The mind is thinking, non-extended substance; the body is extended, non-thinking substance. Problem: how do they interact?
笛卡尔捍卫的实体二元论说，心灵与身体是两种完全不同的实体。心灵是思维、不占空间的实体；身体是广延、不思维的实体。问题在于：它们如何互动？
Physicalism | 物理主义
Physicalism holds that everything is physical, including the mind. Mental states are just brain states. The identity theory says pain just IS C-fibres firing. Physicalism avoids the interaction problem of dualism.
物理主义认为，万物都是物理的，包括心灵。心理状态仅仅是大脑状态。同一论说，疼痛就是C神经纤维的激发。物理主义避免了二元论的互动难题。
Interactionism | 交互论
Interactionism is a dualist view that mind and body causally affect each other. Descartes thought the pineal gland was the point of interaction. This view faces the problem of explaining how non-physical mind moves matter.
交互论是一种二元论观点，认为心灵和身体能彼此因果地影响。笛卡尔认为松果体是互动的所在点。这一观点面临如何解释非物质心灵推动物质的难题。
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