📚 Year 9 Edexcel Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | 爱德思九年级心理学：公式定理速查手册
This revision handbook compiles the most important formulas, key theoretical models, and research design principles for Year 9 Edexcel Psychology. Each section presents an English explanation immediately followed by its Chinese counterpart, enabling rapid review. Use it to strengthen your understanding of data handling, memory frameworks, conditioning processes, developmental stages, and social influence experiments.
本复习手册汇编了爱德思九年级心理学中最重要的公式、关键理论模型与研究设计原则。每个小节均采用英文说明后紧跟中文对照的形式，方便快速查阅。利用它来巩固你对数据处理、记忆框架、条件反射过程、发展阶段以及社会影响实验的理解。
1. Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion | 集中趋势与离散程度
The mean is the arithmetic average and is calculated by dividing the sum of all scores by the total number of scores. It is the most commonly used measure of central tendency but can be distorted by extreme outliers.
均值是算术平均值，通过将所有分数之和除以分数的总个数算出。它是最常用的集中趋势度量，但易受极端值的影响。
Mean = (Sum of all scores) ÷ (Number of scores)
均值 = (所有分数之和) ÷ (分数的个数)
The median is the middle value when all data points are arranged in order. When there is an even number of values, the median is the average of the two central numbers.
中位数是将所有数据按大小顺序排列后处于中间位置的值。当数据个数为偶数时，中位数是中间两个数值的平均数。
The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a data set. A set can have one mode (unimodal), two modes (bimodal), or more.
众数是一组数据中出现次数最多的值。一组数据可以有一个众数、两个众数甚至多个众数。
The range measures the spread of data. It is found by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score. A larger range indicates greater variability.
范围用于衡量数据的离散程度，由最大值减去最小值得到。范围越大，说明数据的变异性越高。
Range = Highest score – Lowest score
范围 = 最高分 – 最低分
2. Percentage Change and Proportion | 百分比变化与比例
Percentages allow psychologists to express a part of a whole as a fraction of 100. This is particularly useful when summarising questionnaire data or comparing frequencies across conditions.
百分比使心理学家能将整体的一部分表示为百分之几，这在汇总问卷数据或比较不同条件下的频数时特别有用。
Percentage (%) = (Part ÷ Whole) × 100
百分比 (%) = (部分 ÷ 整体) × 100
To calculate a percentage increase or decrease, use the formula: [(New value – e] × 100. A positive result indicates an increase; a negative result indicates a decrease.
计算百分比增加或减少时，使用公式：[(新数值 – 原数值) ÷ 原数值] × 100。结果为正值表示增加，负值表示减少。
A proportion is expressed as a fraction or a decimal of a whole, making it easy to compare groups of different sizes. For instance, 15 out of 50 participants can be written as 0.30.
比例以分数或小数的形式表示部分与整体的关系，便于比较不同大小的组别。例如，50 名参与者中的 15 名可写成 0.30。
3. Research Methods: Quick Reference | 研究方法：速查
An experiment involves the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables. The aim states the purpose; the hypothesis predicts the relationship.
实验法通过操纵自变量来观察其对因变量的影响，同时控制额外变量。研究目的陈述意图；假设则预测其间的关系。
Experimental hypothesis: predicts a significant difference or correlation between the IV and DV.
实验假设：预测自变量与因变量之间存在显著差异或相关。
An observation study collects data by watching and recording behaviour in natural or controlled settings. Behavioural categories must be clearly operationalised to ensure reliability.
观察法通过查看和记录自然情境或控制情境中的行为收集数据。行为类别必须明确操作化，以确保信度。
Self-report methods, such as questionnaires and interviews, gather participants' thoughts, feelings, and attitudes. Closed questions generate quantitative data; open questions yield qualitative detail.
自陈法，如问卷和访谈，收集参与者的想法、感受及态度。封闭式问题产生定量数据；开放式问题则获得丰富的定性细节。
4. The Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) | 记忆的多重储存模型
The multi-store model describes memory as a flow of information through three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Attention and rehearsal are critical control processes.
多重储存模型将记忆描述为信息流经三个独立储存库的过程：感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。注意与复述是关键的调控过程。
Sensory memory → Attention → STM → Rehearsal → LTM
感觉记忆 → 注意 → 短时记忆 → 复述 → 长时记忆
Capacity and duration differ: STM holds around 7±2 chunks for about 18– capacity and duration. Information is encoded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM.
容量与时长各有不同：短时记忆约储存 7±2 个组块，时长 18–30 秒；长时记忆则几乎无限容量、无限时长。短时记忆以听觉编码为主，长时记忆则以语义编码为主。
Evidence from the serial position effect supports the model. In a recall task, words at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list are remembered best, illustrating separate STM and LTM.
序列位置效应的证据支持了这一模型。在回忆任务中，列表开头和末尾的词语记忆效果最好，表明了短时记忆与长时记忆的分离。
5. The Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) | 工作记忆模型
The working memory model replaced the idea of a unitary STM with a multi-component system. It consists of a central executive that directs attention, plus two slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.
工作记忆模型用多成分系统取代了单一短时记忆的概念。它由一个指挥注意的中央执行器，以及两个从属系统——语音回路和视空间面板——组成。
Central Executive ↔ Phonological Loop + Visuospatial Sketchpad → Episodic Buffer
中央执行器 ↔ 语音回路 + 视空间面板 → 情景缓冲器
The phonological loop processes spoken and written material and has two subcomponents: the phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory control process (inner voice). The visuospatial sketchpad handles visual and spatial information.
语音回路负责处理口语和书面材料，包含两个子成分：语音储存（内耳）与发音控制过程（内语）。视空间面板则处理视觉与空间信息。
Later, the episodic buffer was added to integrate information from the slave systems and link it to LTM. This model explains why people can perform two tasks simultaneously if they use different components.
后来增补了情景缓冲器，用于整合来自从属系统的信息并将其与长时记忆联接。该模型解释了为何当任务使用不同组件时，人们能同时执行双任务。
6. Classical Conditioning: Stimulus-Response Relations | 经典条件反射：刺激-反应关系
Classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, is learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes conditioned after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
巴甫洛夫发现的经典条件反射，是通过联想进行的学习。一个中性刺激在与能自然引发反应的无条件刺激反复配对后，便成为条件刺激。
NS (bell) + US (food) → UR (salivation)
中性刺激 (铃声) + 无条件刺激 (食物) → 无条件反应 (唾液分泌)
After conditioning: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)
条件作用后：条件刺激 (铃声) → 条件反应 (唾液分泌)
Key principles include extinction (CR weakens when CS is presented alone repeatedly), spontaneous recovery (sudden reappearance of CR after a rest period), and generalisation (similar stimuli trigger CR).
关键原则包括消退（条件刺激单独反复出现时条件反应减弱）、自然恢复（休息后条件反应突然重现）和泛化（相似刺激也能引发条件反应）。
7. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment | 操作性条件反射：强化与惩罚
Operant conditioning, proposed by B.F. Skinner, explains how behaviour is shaped by consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour; punishment decreases it.
斯金纳提出的操作性条件反射解释了行为如何被后果塑造。强化提高行为发生的概率，惩罚则降低其概率。
| English Term | 中文术语 | Definition / 定义 |
|---|---|---|
| Positive reinforcement | 正强化 | Add a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour. 增加愉快刺激以强化行为。 |
| Negative reinforcement | 负强化 | Remove an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour. 移除厌恶刺激以强化行为。 |
| Positive punishment | 正惩罚 | Add an unpleasant stimulus to reduce behaviour. 增加厌恶刺激以减少行为。 |
| Negative punishment | 负惩罚 | Remove a pleasant stimulus to reduce behaviour. 移除愉快刺激以减少行为。 |
Schedules of reinforcement determine how often the consequence follows a behaviour. Continuous reinforcement offers a reward every time; partial schedules (fixed/variable ratio/interval) produce slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.
强化程式决定了行为之后多常跟随结果。连续强化每次都给予奖励；部分强化（固定/变化比率/时距）的习得较慢，但对消退的抵抗更强。
8. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展理论
Jean Piaget proposed that children pass through four invariant stages of cognitive growth, each characterised by qualitatively different ways of thinking. Schema, assimilation, and accommodation drive intellectual progress.
皮亚杰提出儿童经历四个不变的认知成长阶段，每一阶段都有性质不同的思维方式。图式、同化和顺应推动智力发展。
| Stage (English) | 阶段 (中文) | Key Features / 主要特征 |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor (0-2 years) | 感知运动阶段 (0-2岁) | Learn through senses and actions; develop object permanence. 通过感觉和动作学习；获得客体永久性。 |
| Preoperational (2-7 years) | 前运算阶段 (2-7岁) | Use symbols and language; egocentric thinking; lack conservation. 使用符号和语言；自我中心思维；缺乏守恒。 |
| Concrete operational (7-11 years) | 具体运算阶段 (7-11岁) | Logical thought about concrete events; master conservation and classification. 对具体事件进行逻辑思考；掌握守恒与分类。 |
| Formal operational (11+ years) | 形式运算阶段 (11岁+) | Abstract and hypothetical reasoning; systematic problem-solving. 抽象与假设推理；系统化解决问题。 |
9. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. Asch (1951) found that about 37% of participants conformed to an obviously wrong majority on a line judgement task, demonstrating normative social influence.
从众是指由于真实或想象中的群体压力而导致行为或信念的改变。阿希 (1951) 发现在线段判断任务中约 37% 的参与者屈从于明显错误的大多数，证明了规范性社会影响。
Obedience involves following direct commands from an authority figure. Milgram (1963) showed that 65% of participants administered the maximum 450-volt shock, highlighting the power of situational factors.
服从涉及听从权威人物的直接指令。米尔格拉姆 (1963) 的研究显示 65% 的参与者给出了最高 450 伏的电击，凸显了情境因素的强大作用。
Conformity = Public compliance + Private acceptance (sometimes)
从众 = 公开的顺从 + 私下的接纳（有时）
Factors affecting conformity include group size (up to 4), unanimity (a dissenter drastically reduces conformity), and task difficulty. Obedience is influenced by proximity to authority, prestige, and the presence of buffers.
影响从众的因素包括团体规模（至多 4 人）、意见一致性（一个反对者即可显著降低从众）以及任务难度。服从则受与权威的距离、权威声望以及缓冲者存在的影响。
10. Ethical Guidelines (BPS) | 伦理准则（英国心理学会）
The British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics outlines principles all psychological research must adhere to. These principles protect participants from harm and uphold the integrity of the discipline.
英国心理学会伦理准则列出了所有心理学研究必须遵守的原则，旨在保护参与者免受伤害并维护学科诚信。
- Informed consent: Participants must know the aims and procedures and agree freely.
知情同意：参与者须知晓研究目的和程序，并自愿同意。 - Deception: Avoid misleading participants unless scientifically necessary; debriefing is required afterwards.
欺骗：除非科学上必要，否则应避免误导参与者；事后必须进行事后解释。 - Right to withdraw: Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.
随时退出权：参与者可在任何时候退出研究且不受惩罚。 - Confidentiality: Data must remain anonymous, and identities protected.
保密性：数据须保持匿名，身份信息受到保护。 - Protection from harm: Psychological and physical wellbeing must be preserved; risks should be no greater than everyday life.
免受伤害：必须维护心理和身体福祉，风险不得高于日常生活。 - Debrief: After participation, the true purpose is revealed, and support is offered.
事后解释：参与后揭示真实目的并给予支持。
11. Types of Data and Graphs | 数据类型与图表
Quantitative data are numerical and can be analysed statistically (e.g., test scores, reaction times). Qualitative data are non-numerical and describe qualities (e.g., interview transcripts, open-ended responses).
定量数据是数值型的，可进行统计分析（如测试分数、反应时）。定性数据是非数值型的，描述性质与特征（如访谈转录、开放式回答）。
Primary data are collected firsthand for the specific research aim; secondary data are already existing (e.g., government statistics, previous studies). Both have strengths and limitations regarding validity and bias.
一手数据是研究者为特定目的亲自收集的；二手数据是既有的（如政府统计、以往研究）。两者在效度和偏差方面各有优势与局限。
Choosing the correct graph is vital: a bar chart compares discrete categories; a histogram shows continuous frequency intervals; a scattergram displays correlations between two co-variables; a line graph tracks changes over time.
选择正确的图表至关重要：条形图用于比较离散类别；直方图展示连续频率区间；散点图呈现两个协变量之间的相关；线图追踪随时间发生的变化。
Correlation ≠ Causation
相关 ≠ 因果
Even a strong correlation, such as +0.80, does not prove that one variable causes the other. An unseen third factor may influence both, so causal conclusions require controlled experiments.
即使强
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