📚 Year 8 Cambridge Sociology: Vocabulary and Key Terms Quick Guide | Year 8 Cambridge 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to your essential vocabulary quick guide for Year 8 Cambridge Sociology. Understanding key sociological terms is the first step towards explaining how human societies are organised, how people interact, and why inequalities exist. This bilingual guide will help you memorise definitions and apply them in class discussions and written work.
欢迎使用 Year 8 Cambridge 社会学核心词汇速记指南。理解社会学的关键术语，是解释人类社会是如何组织的、人们如何互动以及不平等为何存在的第一步。本双语指南将帮助你记忆定义，并在课堂讨论和书面作业中加以运用。
1. Core Concepts of Society | 社会核心概念
Society is a group of people who share a common territory, interact with one another, and share a culture. Societies can range from small communities to large nations, and they provide the framework for human relationships.
社会是一群共享共同领土、相互交往并拥有共同文化的人组成的群体。社会大小不等，从小型社区到大型国家，它们为人类关系提供了框架。
Social structure refers to the organised pattern of social relationships and institutions that together compose society. It includes the hierarchies of roles, groups, and statuses that shape people's everyday lives and opportunities.
社会结构指组成社会的社会关系和制度的组织模式，包括影响人们日常生活和机会的角色、群体与地位的等级体系。
Social institutions are established patterns of behaviour organised around the basic needs of society. Examples include family, education, religion, and the legal system. They provide stability and guidelines for how we should behave.
社会制度是围绕社会基本需求组织起来的既定行为模式。例如家庭、教育、宗教和法律体系。它们提供稳定性，并为我们应如何行事提供规范。
2. Socialisation | 社会化
Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood and is mainly carried out by the family. During this stage, children learn basic norms, values, language, and the behaviours expected of them in their culture.
初级社会化发生在儿童早期，主要由家庭完成。在此阶段，儿童学习基本的规范、价值观、语言以及文化期望的行为。
Secondary socialisation takes place later in life through schools, peer groups, media, and workplaces. It teaches individuals how to act in wider society and adapt to new social environments beyond the family.
次级社会化在人生的后续阶段通过学校、同伴群体、媒体和工作场所进行。它教会个体如何在更广阔的社会中行动，并适应家庭以外的新社会环境。
Agents of socialisation are the people, groups, and institutions that shape our sense of self and teach us how to participate in society. Key agents include family, school, peer groups, and mass media.
社会化媒介是塑造自我意识并教会我们如何参与社会的人、群体和机构。主要媒介包括家庭、学校、同伴群体和大众传媒。
3. Culture and Identity | 文化与身份认同
Culture refers to the shared way of life of a group of people, including their beliefs, values, customs, language, and material objects. It acts as a lens through which people interpret the world.
文化指一群人共享的生活方式，包括他们的信仰、价值观、习俗、语言和物质对象。它充当人们解读世界的镜头。
Subculture is a smaller cultural group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms, values, and lifestyles, while still sharing many of the mainstream culture's characteristics. For example, skaters or a youth music scene can form subcultures.
亚文化是大文化中的一个小文化群体，拥有自身独特的规范、价值观和生活方式，同时仍保留许多主流文化的特征。例如，滑板族或青年音乐圈子可以形成亚文化。
Cultural diversity describes the variety of cultures existing within a society or across the world. It highlights differences in traditions, languages, and beliefs, and is often valued for enriching social life.
文化多样性描述一个社会内部或世界各地存在的多种文化。它突显传统、语言和信仰的差异，并常因其丰富社会生活而被珍视。
Identity is how individuals see and define themselves, and how others see them. It can be influenced by factors such as gender, ethnicity, nationality, social class, and personal experiences.
身份认同是个体如何看待与定义自己，以及他人如何看待他们。它可能受到性别、种族、国籍、社会阶层和个人经历等因素的影响。
4. Norms and Values | 规范与价值观
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. They guide everyday actions, such as queuing politely or saying 'thank you'. Breaking norms can lead to social disapproval.
规范是群体或社会中被认为可接受的不成文行为规则。它们指导日常行动，例如礼貌排队或说“谢谢”。违反规范可能导致社会否定。
Values are deeply held beliefs about what is good, right, and desirable. They provide the broad principles that underpin norms. For instance, valuing privacy may lead to the norm of knocking before entering a room.
价值观是关于什么是好、正确和可取的深层信念。它们提供支撑规范的广泛原则。例如，重视隐私可能导致进屋前先敲门的规范。
Mores (pronounced 'mor-ays') are norms that are seen as morally significant. Violating mores often results in strong condemnation, such as lying under oath or theft. They are more strictly enforced than ordinary norms.
民德（发音同“莫瑞兹”）是被视为具有道德重要性的规范。违反民德往往导致强烈谴责，比如作伪证或盗窃。它们比普通规范执行更严格。
Folkways are less serious norms governing everyday courtesy and customs, such as table manners or greeting styles. Breaking folkways is usually met with mild social reactions rather than severe punishment.
民俗是管理日常礼节和习俗的不太严重的规范，比如餐桌礼仪或问候方式。违反民俗通常只会引起轻微的社会反应，而非严厉惩罚。
5. Roles and Status | 角色与地位
Status refers to a person's social position within a group or society. It can determine how much respect or prestige someone receives and often influences a person's role.
地位指一个人在群体或社会中的社会位置。它可以决定一个人获得多少尊重或威望，并常常影响其角色。
Ascribed status is a social position a person is born into or receives involuntarily, such as being a daughter, a teenager, or a member of a particular ethnic group. It is not earned by choice or effort.
先赋地位是一个人天生具有或非自愿获得的社会位置，例如身为女儿、青少年或某个种族群体的一员。它不是通过选择或努力挣来的。
Achieved status is a social position gained through personal effort, ability, or accomplishment. Examples include becoming a doctor, a team captain, or a university graduate.
自致地位是通过个人努力、能力或成就获得的社会位置。例如成为医生、队长或大学毕业生。
Role is the set of behaviours, obligations, and expectations attached to a particular status. A teacher's role, for example, includes instructing students, marking work, and maintaining discipline.
角色是附着在特定地位上的一套行为、义务和期望。例如，教师的角色包括指导学生学习、批改作业和维持纪律。
Role conflict occurs when the expectations of two or more roles clash. A student who is also a part-time worker might experience role conflict when an exam clashes with a work shift.
角色冲突发生在两个或多个角色的期望相互冲突时。一名学生同时兼职，当考试与工作班次冲突时，就可能经历角色冲突。
6. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social stratification is the way society is divided into hierarchical layers based on factors like wealth, power, and prestige. It creates unequal access to resources and opportunities across different groups.
社会分层是社会根据财富、权力和声望等因素划分为等级层次的方式。它导致不同群体获得资源和机会的不平等。
Social class is a group of people who share a similar economic and social position, often defined by occupation, income, education, and lifestyle. Common categories include working class, middle class, and upper class.
社会阶级是经济和社会地位相似的一群人，通常由职业、收入、教育和生活方式界定。常见类别包括工人阶级、中产阶级和上层阶级。
Life chances refer to the opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life, such as access to good education, healthcare, and housing. They are strongly influenced by social class and stratification.
生活机会指个人提高生活质量的机遇，如获得良好教育、医疗保健和住房的机会。它们深受社会阶级和分层的影响。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between different levels of social stratification. Upward mobility means moving to a higher class, while downward mobility refers to a drop in status.
社会流动是个人或群体在社会分层的不同层次之间移动。向上流动指升入更高阶级，向下流动则指地位下降。
7. Prejudice, Stereotypes and Discrimination | 偏见、刻板印象与歧视
Prejudice means holding preconceived, usually negative, attitudes or judgments about an individual based on their membership in a particular group, without any real evidence. It is an attitude of mind.
偏见指基于某人所处群体成员身份而对其持有的先入为主（通常是负面的）态度或判断，并无真实证据。它是一种心理态度。
Stereotype is an oversimplified, fixed, and generalised belief about a particular group of people. Stereotypes often ignore individual differences, for example assuming all teenagers are lazy.
刻板印象是对某一特定人群过分简化、固定且笼统的看法。刻板印象往往忽略个体差异，例如假设所有青少年都懒惰。
Discrimination involves acting on prejudice, treating people unfairly because of the group they belong to. It can occur in employment, education, housing, and daily interactions.
歧视指将偏见付诸行动，因人们所属群体而不公平对待他们。歧视可能发生在就业、教育、住房和日常互动中。
Scapegoating is blaming a person or group for problems they did not cause, often when people feel frustrated or threatened. For example, blaming an immigrant community for economic difficulties is a form of scapegoating.
替罪羊是指将并非某人或某群体造成的问题归咎于他们，常在人们感到沮丧或受威胁时发生。例如，将经济困难归咎于移民社区就是一种替罪羊行为。
8. Family | 家庭
Family is a primary social institution consisting of people related by blood, marriage, or adoption who share emotional bonds and economic responsibilities. It is the main agent of primary socialisation.
家庭是一个主要的社会制度，由血缘、婚姻或收养关系相连的人组成，他们共享情感纽带和经济责任。它是初级社会化的主要媒介。
Nuclear family is a family unit consisting of two parents and their dependent children living together. It is often presented as a traditional model, though family forms vary widely.
核心家庭是由父母双方及其受抚养子女组成并共同生活的家庭单元。尽管家庭形式多种多样，但核心家庭常被当作传统模式。
Extended family extends beyond the nuclear unit, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or sharing a household. It can provide a wider support network.
扩展家庭超出核心单元，包括祖父母、姨姑叔伯和堂表兄弟姐妹，他们住得近或同住一户。它能够提供更广泛的支持网络。
Lone-parent family consists of one parent raising their children alone, which can result from divorce, separation, death of a partner, or choice. These families may face greater economic challenges but are just as loving and supportive.
单亲家庭由一位家长独自抚养子女组成，原因可能是离婚、分居、伴侣去世或个人选择。这些家庭可能面临更大的经济挑战，但同样充满关爱和支持。
Functions of the family include providing emotional security, regulating sexual behaviour, socialising children, and offering economic support. Functionalists argue these are essential for social stability.
家庭的功能包括提供情感安全、规范两性行为、对儿童进行社会化和提供经济支持。功能主义者认为这些对社会稳定至关重要。
9. Social Control | 社会控制
Social control refers to the methods societies use to promote order, conformity, and stability. It can be formal, such as laws, or informal, such as peer pressure and public opinion.
社会控制指社会用来促进秩序、服从和稳定的方法。它可以是正式的，如法律，也可以是非正式的，如同伴压力和舆论。
Formal social control is exercised by official institutions like the police, courts, and government. It relies on written rules, sanctions, and the legal system to enforce acceptable behaviour.
正式社会控制由警察、法院和政府等官方机构实施。它依赖成文规则、制裁和法律体系来强制执行可接受的行为。
Informal social control is carried out through everyday interactions by family, friends, and the community using praise, criticism, gossip, or social exclusion to encourage conformity.
非正式社会控制通过家庭、朋友和社区的日常互动实施，使用表扬、批评、闲话或社会排斥等手段来鼓励服从。
Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to reinforce social norms. Positive sanctions include awards and compliments; negative sanctions include fines, imprisonment, or social disapproval.
制裁是用来强化社会规范的奖励或惩罚。正面制裁包括奖励和赞美；负面制裁包括罚款、监禁或社会否定。
10. Research Methods | 研究方法
Primary data is information collected directly by the researcher for a specific purpose, such as through questionnaires, interviews, or experiments. It is new and original data.
初级资料是研究者为特定目的直接收集的信息，例如通过问卷、访谈或实验获得。它是全新的原始资料。
Secondary data is data that already exists, having been collected by someone else for a different purpose. Examples include official statistics, historical records, and academic articles.
次级资料是已存在、由他人出于不同目的收集的数据。例子包括官方统计数据、历史记录和学术文章。
Questionnaire is a set of written questions used to gather information from a large number of people. Questions can be closed-ended (yes/no) or open-ended (free-text answers).
问卷是一组用于从大量人群中收集信息的书面问题。问题可以是封闭式（是/否）或开放式（自由文本回答）。
Interview is a method where a researcher asks questions face-to-face, by phone, or online. Structured interviews use a fixed list of questions, while unstructured ones are more like a conversation.
访谈是研究者面对面、通过电话或在线提问的方法。结构化访谈使用固定问题列表，而非结构化访谈更像是对话。
Observation involves watching and recording people's behaviour in natural settings without interference (non-participant), or while taking part in the group's activities (participant observation).
观察指在自然环境下观察并记录人们的行为，不加干预（非参与式），或者参与群体活动的同时进行观察（参与式观察）。
Sample is a smaller, manageable group selected from a larger population to represent it in research. A representative sample ensures findings can be generalised to the whole population.
样本是从一个较大总体中选出的较小、可管理的群体，用于在研究中进行代表。一个有代表性的样本确保研究结果可推广到整个总体。
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