📚 Year 8 SQA Psychology: A Quick Guide to Key Terms | Year 8 SQA 心理学：核心术语速记指南
Welcome to your Year 8 SQA Psychology key terms revision guide. Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour, and like any science, it has its own special vocabulary. Getting comfortable with these words early on will make topics like memory, social influence and brain function much easier to understand. This article breaks down the most important terms into ten clear sections, with every definition given in English first and then in Chinese, so you can build your knowledge step by step.
欢迎使用 Year 8 SQA 心理学核心术语速记指南。心理学是对心理和行为的科学研究，像任何科学一样，它有自己的专业词汇。早点熟悉这些词语会让你对记忆、社会影响和大脑功能等主题的理解轻松许多。本文把最重要的术语分成十个清晰的板块，每个定义都先给出英文解释，再给出对应的中文解释，帮助你一步步积累知识。
1. Introduction to Psychology | 心理学入门
Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. It examines how people think, feel and act, using evidence rather than guesswork. Psychologists aim to describe, explain, predict and sometimes change behaviour.
心理学是对心理过程和行为的科学研究。它考察人们如何思考、感受和行动，依靠证据而非猜测。心理学家致力于描述、解释、预测，有时也改变行为。
Mind refers to our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories and feelings – everything going on inside our heads. Behaviour is any observable action, such as talking, running or laughing.
心理（心智）指我们私密的内部体验，包括感知、思维、记忆和情感——即我们头脑中发生的一切。行为则是任何可观察的动作，如说话、跑步或大笑。
Hypothesis is a testable prediction about what will happen under certain conditions. It is often written as an ‘if‑then’ statement. A theory is a broader explanation of a phenomenon, supported by repeated testing and evidence.
假设是关于在特定条件下会发生什么的可验证预测，常常写成“如果……那么……”的陈述。理论是对某一现象的更为广泛的解释，经过反复检验并得到证据支持。
Variable is anything that can change or vary in an experiment. The independent variable (IV) is the factor you deliberately change, and the dependent variable (DV) is what you measure to see the effect.
变量是指在实验中可以变化或改变的任何事物。自变量是你有意改变的因素，因变量是你测量结果、观察其效应的因素。
2. Research Methods | 研究方法
Experiment is a research method where the investigator changes one variable (IV) and measures its effect on another variable (DV), while trying to keep everything else the same. A laboratory experiment takes place in a controlled setting; a field experiment happens in a natural environment.
实验是一种研究方法，研究者改变一个变量（自变量）并测量它对另一个变量（因变量）的影响，同时尽量让其他条件保持不变。实验室实验在受控环境中进行；现场实验在自然环境中进行。
Observation involves watching and recording behaviour without interfering. A naturalistic observation is carried out in the subject’s everyday setting, whereas a controlled observation is structured and often takes place in a lab-like room.
观察法是指在不干预的情况下观看并记录行为。自然观察是在被观察者的日常环境中进行，而控制观察则是有结构的，通常在类似实验室的房间内进行。
Questionnaire is a set of written questions that can be given to lots of people. Open questions produce detailed, word-based answers; closed questions give a limited set of choices, making the data easy to count.
问卷调查是一套书面问题，能分发给大量人群。开放式问题产生详细的文字回答；封闭式问题提供有限的选项，使数据容易计数和统计。
Validity means whether a test or study actually measures what it claims to measure. Reliability means whether the results can be repeated consistently. If a ruler is marked wrongly it may be reliable (always wrong) but not valid.
效度指一个测试或研究是否确实测量了它声称要测量的内容。信度指其结果能否稳定地重复。如果一把尺子刻度标错了，它可能很可靠（每次错得一样），但不具有效度。
3. Sensation and Perception | 感觉与知觉
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors detect physical energy from the environment – such as light waves, sound waves or chemicals – and convert it into neural signals. Perception is the brain’s organisation and interpretation of those signals, giving them meaning.
感觉是我们的感觉感受器探测环境中物理能量（如光波、声波或化学物质）并将其转变成神经信号的过程。知觉是大脑对这些信号的组织和解读，并赋予其意义。
Absolute threshold is the smallest amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus half the time. For example, on a quiet night you might just be able to detect a candle flame 50 kilometres away if your eyes were perfectly sensitive.
绝对阈限是指在半数尝试中刚好能察觉到某一刺激所需的最小刺激量。例如，在静谧的夜晚，如果你的眼睛足够敏感，你可能正好察觉到50公里外的一支烛光。
Difference threshold or just noticeable difference (JND) is the smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected. Weber’s law states that the JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus size.
差别阈限或最小可觉差是指能察觉到的最小刺激变化量。韦伯定律指出，最小可觉差与原始刺激强度的比例是恒定的。
Perceptual set is a readiness to perceive something in a particular way, influenced by expectations, emotions, culture and past experience. This is why we sometimes see what we expect to see rather than what is really there.
知觉定势是一种以特定方式知觉事物的准备状态，受预期、情绪、文化和过往经验的影响。这就是为什么我们有时看到的是我们期待见到的，而非真实存在的东西。
4. Memory | 记忆
Memory is the process of encoding, storing and retrieving information. Encoding turns sensory input into a code the brain can use; storage holds it over time; retrieval brings it back when needed.
记忆是信息的编码、储存和提取过程。编码将感觉输入转变为大脑能使用的代码；储存将信息保存一段时间；提取在需要时将其取回。
Sensory memory emory is visual (lasting about 0.3 seconds) and echoic memory is auditory (lasting about 3–4 seconds). Short‑ memory (STM) holds around 7±2 chunks of information for about 20 seconds unless rehearsed.
感觉记忆极其短暂地保存你感受到的一切。图像记忆是视觉的（约持续0.3秒），声像记忆是听觉的（约持续3–4秒）。短时记忆约容纳7±2个组块的信息，时长约20秒，除非进行复述。
Long‑term memory (LTM) is the relatively permanent store of information. It can be divided into episodic memory (personal events), semantic memory (facts and knowledge) and procedural memory (how to do things like ride a bike).
长时记忆是信息相对永久的储存库。它可分为情景记忆（个人事件）、语义记忆（事实和知识）和程序性记忆（如骑自行车这样的“怎么做”的技能）。
Rehearsal is consciously repeating information to keep it in STM or transfer it to LTM. Elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information to what you already know, making it stick much better than simple repetition.
复述是有意识地重复信息，使其保持在短时记忆或转入长时记忆。精细复述涉及将新信息与已知知识联系起来，这比简单重复的记忆效果好得多。
5. Learning | 学习
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience. Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov: a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) that naturally triggers a response, until the neutral stimulus alone triggers a conditioned response (salivation).
学习是由经验引起的行为或知识上相对持久的变化。经典条件作用由伊万·巴甫洛夫发现：一个中性刺激（如铃声）与能自然引发反应的无条件刺激（食物）配对，直到该中性刺激单独也能引发条件反应（分泌唾液）。
Operant conditioning, studied by B.F. Skinner, involves learning through consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour; punishment decreases it. Positive means adding something; negative means removing something.
操作条件作用由B.F.斯金纳研究，是通过后果进行学习。强化增加行为发生的可能性；惩罚减少行为发生的可能性。正强化/惩罚指增加某事物；负强化/惩罚指移除某事物。
Observational learning – also called social learning – happens when we watch and imitate others. The model is the person being observed. Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll study showed children copying aggressive acts they had seen adults perform.
观察学习——也称社会学习——是指我们通过观看并模仿他人来学习。榜样是被观察的对象。阿尔伯特·班杜拉的“波波玩偶”实验表明，儿童会模仿他们看到的成人攻击行为。
Extinction in learning occurs when a conditioned response gradually disappears because the conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery is when the response suddenly reappears after a break.
消退在学习中是指条件反应因条件刺激不再伴随无条件刺激而逐渐消失的现象。自发恢复是指反应在停顿一段时间后突然再次出现。
6. Social Influence | 社会影响
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief to match those of a group. Normative social influence leads us to conform because we want to be liked and accepted; informational social influence occurs when we look to the group for information, believing they know better.
从众是指为了与群体一致而改变行为或信念。规范性社会影响使我们从众，因为我们希望被喜欢和接纳；信息性社会影响则发生在我们向群体寻求信息，认为他们懂得更多的时候。
Obedience involves following direct orders from an authority figure. Stanley Milgram’s famous experiment showed ordinary people were prepared to deliver what they believed were severe electric shocks to others when instructed by an authority.
服从是指遵从权威人物的直接指令。斯坦利·米尔格拉姆的著名实验表明，普通人在权威指令下会准备向他人施加他们认为严重的电击。
Bystander effect is the finding that people are less likely to help a victim when other people are present. Diffusion of responsibility means each person feels less personal accountability because they assume someone else will step in.
旁观者效应是指在场人数越多，个人出手帮助受害者的可能性就越低。责任扩散意味着每个人都感觉自己责任变小了，因为他们以为其他人会介入。
Prejudice is an unjustified, usually negative attitude towards a group and its members. It involves stereotypes (overgeneralised beliefs), negative feelings and discrimination – treating people unfairly because of their group membership.
偏见是一种对某一群体及其成员的不公正的、通常是消极的态度。它涉及刻板印象（过度概括的信念）、负面情感和歧视——因群体成员身份而不公平地对待他人。
7. Developmental Psychology | 发展心理学
Attachment is a strong emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver. John Bowlby argued that early attachments provide an internal working model for future relationships. Mary Ainsworth identified secure, insecure‑avoidant and insecure‑ambivalent attachment styles using the Strange Situation procedure.
依恋是婴儿与其主要照料者之间形成的一种强烈情感纽带。约翰·鲍尔比认为，早期依恋为将来的人际关系提供了一种内部工作模型。玛丽·安斯沃思通过陌生情境程序识别出安全型、不安全回避型和不安全矛盾型依恋风格。
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development describe how children’s thinking changes. Key stages: sensorimotor (0–2 years, learning through senses and actions), preoperational (2–7 years, symbolic thinking but egocentric), concrete operational (7–11 years, logical about objects) and formal operational (12+, abstract reasoning).
皮亚杰的认知发展阶段描述了儿童思维如何变化。关键阶段：感知运动阶段（0–2岁，通过感觉和动作学习），前运算阶段（2–7岁，符号思维但自我中心），具体运算阶段（7–11岁，对具体事物进行逻辑思维）和形式运算阶段（12岁起，抽象推理）。
Egocentrism in Piaget’s theory is the inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view. The classic test is the three mountains task, where a preoperational child cannot imagine what a doll sees from a different angle.
自我中心在皮亚杰理论中指无法从他人的角度看问题的能力。经典测试是三山任务，前运算阶段的儿童无法想象娃娃从不同角度看到什么。
Adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood, involving puberty, rapid brain development and identity formation. Erik Erikson described this stage as identity vs. role confusion, where the main task is to develop a clear sense of self.
青春期是从童年向成年过渡的时期，涉及生理发育成熟、大脑快速发展和同一性形成。埃里克·埃里克森将这一阶段描述为同一性对角色混乱，主要任务是形成清晰的自我意识。
8. Biopsychology | 生物心理学
Neuron is a nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system. It receives signals through dendrites, sends them along the axon and passes them to other neurons across a tiny gap called a synapse, using chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.
神经元是神经细胞，是神经系统的基本构件。它通过树突接收信号，沿轴突传递信号，并通过突触这个微小间隙，利用称为神经递质的化学信使将信号传递给其他神经元。
Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system connects the CNS to the rest of the body. The autonomic nervous system controls automatic functions like heartbeat and digestion; the somatic nervous system guides voluntary movement.
中枢神经系统由脑和脊髓组成。周围神经系统将中枢神经系统与身体其余部分连接起来。自主神经系统控制心跳、消化等自动功能；躯体神经系统引导随意运动。
Hormones are chemical substances released by glands into the bloodstream. For example, adrenaline is released in stressful situations, preparing the body for a fight‑or‑flight response, while melatonin helps regulate sleep.
激素是由腺体释放到血液中的化学物质。例如，肾上腺素在应激情况下释放，使身体做好战斗或逃跑的准备；而褪黑素帮助调节睡眠。
Brain lateralisation refers to the way some functions are more dominant in one hemisphere than the other. For most right‑handed people, language is processed mainly in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere is more involved in spatial tasks and face recognition.
大脑偏侧化是指某些功能在其中一个半球比另一半球更具优势的现象。对大多数右利手者来说，语言主要在左半球加工，而右半球更多地参与空间任务和面孔识别。
9. Cognitive Psychology | 认知心理学
Cognition covers all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating. Cognitive psychology compares the mind to a computer, where information enters, is processed and produces an output.
认知涵盖与思考、认识、记忆和交流相关的所有心理活动。认知心理学将心智比作计算机，信息进入、加工后产生输出。
Attention is the concentration of mental effort on sensory or mental events. Selective attention lets you focus on one voice in a noisy room, while ignoring others – this is often called the cocktail party effect.
注意是心理努力集中到感觉或心理事件上。选择性注意让你在嘈杂房间里专注于一个声音而忽略其他，这常被称为鸡尾酒会效应。
Problem‑solving strategies include algorithms (step‑by‑step procedures that guarantee a solution) and heuristics (mental shortcuts that are speedier but do not guarantee success). An example of a heuristic is trial and error.
问题解决策略包括算法（按步骤进行的、保证能获得解答的程序）和启发式（更快捷但不保证成功的心理捷径）。试误法就是一种启发式策略。
Schema is a mental framework or concept that helps us organise and interpret information. We have schemas for all sorts of things – dogs, classrooms, birthdays – and they can sometimes lead to mistaken assumptions if we rely on them too rigidly.
图式是一种帮助我们组织和解读信息的心理框架或概念。我们对各种事物——狗、教室、生日——都有图式。如果过于刻板地依赖图式，有时会导致错误判断。
10. Individual Differences | 个体差异
Personality refers to an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting. The Five‑Factor Model (OCEAN) describes personality using five dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.
人格（个性）指个体特有的思维、情感和行为模式。五因素模型（OCEAN）用五个维度描述人格：开放性、尽责性、外向性、宜人性和神经质。
Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems and adapt to new situations. Some psychologists view intelligence as a single general ability (g factor), while others believe there are multiple intelligences, such as linguistic, logical‑mathematical and musical.
智力是从经验中学习、解决问题和适应新情境的能力。一些心理学家将智力视为单一的普遍能力（g因素），另一些则认为存在多元智力，如语言智力、逻辑数学智力和音乐智力。
Self‑esteem is how much you value and accept yourself. It can be influenced by social comparisons, feedback from others and personal achievements. High self‑esteem is linked to resilience, though it is important to build it on real competence.
自尊是你对自己重视和接纳的程度。它受社会比较、他人的反馈以及个人成就的影响。高自尊与心理韧性相关联，但将其建立在真实能力之上却很重要。
Nature vs. nurture debate asks whether psychological traits are mainly shaped by genes (nature) or by environment and experience (nurture). Today most psychologists agree both interact; for example, a child may inherit a tendency towards high anxiety, but whether it develops depends on life experiences.
先天与后天之争探讨心理特质主要是由基因（先天）还是由环境和经验（后天）塑造。如今多数心理学家认同两者相互作用；例如，一名儿童可能遗传了高焦虑的倾向，但这种倾向是否显现取决于生活经验。
Published by TutorHao | Psychology Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
或截图后用「扫一扫 → 相册」选择本图