📚 Year 8 SQA Psychology: Quick Reference Handbook of Formulas and Theorems | Year 8 SQA 心理学：公式定理速查手册
Psychology is full of fascinating principles that help us explain why we think, feel, and behave as we do. This quick reference handbook gathers the essential 'formulas' and 'theorems' you will meet in Year 8 SQA Psychology — from the magic number of short-term memory to the equations of classical conditioning and the laws of social influence. Keep it handy as you revise key studies, models, and statistical tools.
心理学充满了迷人的原理，帮助我们解释为什么我们会这样思考、感受和行动。这本速查手册汇集了你在 Year 8 SQA 心理学中会遇到的核心“公式”与“定理”——从短时记忆的神奇数字，到经典性条件作用的方程，再到社会影响的定律。复习关键研究、模型和统计工具时，请随时查阅。
1. Miller's Law: The Magic Number 7 ± 2 | 米勒定律：神奇数字 7±2
George Miller (1956) proposed that the capacity of short-term memory (STM) is about 7 items, plus or minus 2. This means most people can hold between 5 and 9 chunks of information in STM at any one time. A 'chunk' can be a single digit, a letter, or even a meaningful group of items, like a phone number split into segments.
乔治·米勒（1956年）提出，短时记忆的容量大约是7个项目，上下浮动2个。这意味着大多数人在任何时刻都能在短时记忆中保持5到9个信息块。一个“块”可以是一个数字、一个字母，甚至是一个有意义的信息组，比如被分割成几段的电话号码。
STM Capacity ≈ 7 ± 2 chunks
短时记忆容量 ≈ 7 ± 2 个组块
- Chunking expands effective capacity by grouping information into meaningful units.
- 组块化通过将信息分组为有意义的单元来扩展有效容量。
- Without rehearsal, information in STM decays within 18–30 seconds.
- 如果不进行复述，短时记忆中的信息会在18-30秒内衰退。
2. Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory | 阿特金森-谢夫林记忆多存储模型
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968) describes memory as a flow of information through three distinct stores: Sensory Memory (SM), Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM). Information moves from SM to STM only if we pay attention to it, and from STM to LTM through elaborative rehearsal.
阿特金森-谢夫林模型（1968年）将记忆描述为信息流经三个独立存储库的过程：感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。信息只有受到注意才能从感觉记忆进入短时记忆，并通过精细复述从短时记忆转入长时记忆。
Encoding → Storage → Retrieval
编码 → 存储 → 提取
- Sensory Memory: large capacity, duration less than 0.5 seconds (visual) or 2–3 seconds (auditory).
- 感觉记忆：容量大，持续时间少于0.5秒（视觉）或2-3秒（听觉）。
- STM: capacity 7±2 chunks, duration 18–30 seconds without rehearsal.
- 短时记忆：容量7±2个组块，不复习时持续18-30秒。
- LTM: unlimited capacity and duration, encoded mainly by meaning.
- 长时记忆：容量与持续时间无限，主要以意义进行编码。
3. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) studied memory for nonsense syllables and discovered that forgetting happens most rapidly soon after learning, then levels off. The forgetting curve formula describes a steep drop in recall within the first hour, with about 50% of information forgotten after one day if not rehearsed.
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯（1885年）研究了对无意义音节的记忆，发现遗忘在学习后最初阶段最为迅速，随后趋于平缓。遗忘曲线公式描述了回忆量在第一个小时内急剧下降，若不经复习，大约一天后将有50%的信息被遗忘。
Retention = e–t/S (where t = time, S = memory strength)
保持量 = e–t/S（t=时间，S=记忆强度）
- The largest drop in recall occurs within the first 20 minutes.
- 回忆量最大降幅发生在前20分钟内。
- Spaced repetition and meaningful learning flatten the curve.
- 间隔重复和有意义学习能使曲线变得平坦。
4. Yerkes-Dodson Law (Optimal Arousal) | 耶克斯-多德森定律（最佳唤醒水平）
The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal up to an optimal point, after which further arousal leads to a decline in performance. This creates an inverted U-shaped curve. For simple tasks, optimal arousal is higher; for complex tasks, it is lower.
耶克斯-多德森定律指出，表现随生理或心理唤醒水平的提高而提升，直至一个最佳点，之后进一步唤醒会导致表现下降。这形成了一条倒U形曲线。对于简单任务，最佳唤醒水平较高；对于复杂任务，最佳唤醒水平较低。
Performance = f(Arousal) with an inverted-U relationship
表现 = f(唤醒水平)，呈倒U型关系
- Under-arousal: boredom, low motivation.
- 唤醒不足：无聊、动机低下。
- Over-arousal: anxiety, panic, reduced focus.
- 过度唤醒：焦虑、恐慌、注意力下降。
5. Thorndike's Law of Effect | 桑代克效果律
Edward Thorndike (1898) proposed that responses followed by a satisfying consequence are more likely to be repeated, while responses followed by an annoying consequence are less likely to occur again. This law laid the foundation for operant conditioning and the use of reinforcement to shape behaviour.
爱德华·桑代克（1898年）提出，带来满意结果的反应更可能被重复，而带来烦恼结果的反应则不太可能再次出现。该定律为操作性条件作用和运用强化塑造行为奠定了基础。
Behaviour → Satisfying Consequence → Increased likelihood of repetition
行为 → 满意结果 → 重复概率增加
- Puzzle box experiments with cats demonstrated trial-and-error learning.
- 用猫进行的迷箱实验证明了试误学习。
- The Law of Effect was later refined by B.F. Skinner.
- 效果律后来由 B.F. 斯金纳加以完善。
6. Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Formula | 巴甫洛夫经典性条件作用方程
Classical conditioning is a learning process that creates an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. The basic formula can be expressed as a series of stimulus–response links. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). After repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus (NS) with the US, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR).
经典性条件作用是一种学习过程，它在中性刺激与无条件刺激之间建立联结。其基本公式可表示为一系列刺激-反应链。条件作用形成前，无条件刺激（US）自然引发无条件反应（UR）。当中性刺激（NS）与 US 反复配对后，NS 变成条件刺激（CS），引发条件反应（CR）。
US → UR
NS + US → UR (repeated pairings)
CS → CR
无条件刺激 → 无条件反应
中性刺激 + 无条件刺激 → 无条件反应（多次配对）
条件刺激 → 条件反应
- Extinction occurs when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US.
- 当 CS 多次单独呈现而没有 US 时，就会发生消退。
- Spontaneous recovery, generalisation, and discrimination are key phenomena.
- 自然恢复、泛化与分化是关键现象。
7. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment Contingencies | 操作性条件作用：强化与惩罚列联
B.F. Skinner demonstrated that behaviour is shaped by its consequences. The four possible contingencies are determined by whether a stimulus is added or removed and whether the behaviour increases or decreases. The table summarises the effects of each contingency on future behaviour.
B.F. 斯金纳证明，行为是由其结果塑造的。四种可能的列联取决于刺激是加入还是移除，以及行为是增加还是减少。下表总结了每种列联对未来行为的影响。
| Contingency 列联 | Stimulus 刺激 | Effect on Behaviour 对行为的影响 |
|---|---|---|
| Positive Reinforcement 正强化 | Add pleasant stimulus 给予愉快刺激 | Increases behaviour 行为增加 |
| Negative Reinforcement 负强化 | Remove unpleasant stimulus 移除厌恶刺激 | Increases behaviour 行为增加 |
| Positive Punishment 正惩罚 | Add unpleasant stimulus 给予厌恶刺激 | Decreases behaviour 行为减少 |
| Negative Punishment 负惩罚 | Remove pleasant stimulus 移除愉快刺激 | Decreases behaviour 行为减少 |
- Reinforcement schedules (fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval) influence the rate and pattern of responding.
- 强化程式（固定比率、可变比率、固定时距、可变时距）影响反应的速率与模式。
8. Serial Position Effect (Primacy & Recency) | 序列位置效应（首位及近因效应）
When people are asked to recall a list of words, they tend to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end (recency effect) better than those in the middle. The serial position curve reveals this U-shaped pattern. Primacy is explained by more rehearsal and transfer to LTM; recency by items still available in STM.
当人们被要求回忆一个词语列表时，往往先记住开头部分（首位效应）和末尾部分（近因效应）的项目，中间的项目记忆较差。序列位置曲线揭示了这一U形模式。首位效应可解释为更多复述并转入长时记忆；近因效应则是由于项目仍储存在短时记忆中。
Recall probability = primacy advantage (LTM) + recency advantage (STM)
回忆概率 = 首位优势（长时记忆）+ 近因优势（短时记忆）
- The recency effect disappears if a delay with interference is introduced before recall.
- 若在回忆前加入干扰延迟，近因效应便会消失。
- This effect supports the multi-store model of memory.
- 该效应支持了记忆的多存储模型。
9. Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation | 格式塔知觉组织原则
Gestalt psychologists argued that we perceive whole objects rather than just collections of individual parts. The principles are often expressed as 'laws' because they describe universal tendencies in visual perception. The main principles include:
格式塔心理学家认为，我们感知的是整体对象，而非单个部分的集合。这些原则常被表述为“定律”，因为它们描述了视觉知觉中普遍存在的倾向。主要原则包括：
- Figure–Ground: we separate an object (figure) from its background (ground).
- 图形–背景：我们将物体（图形）与其背景（背景）分开。
- Similarity: similar items are grouped together.
- 相似性：相似的项目被归为一组。
- Proximity: items close together are perceived as a group.
- 接近性：彼此靠近的项目被视为一组。
- Closure: we fill in gaps to see a complete figure.
- 闭合性：我们填补缺口以看见一个完整图形。
- Continuity: lines are seen as following the smoothest path.
- 连续性：线条被视为沿最平滑路径延伸。
10. Loftus & Palmer (1974) Misinformation Effect | 洛夫特斯与帕尔默误导信息效应
Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer demonstrated that memory for an event can be distorted by misleading post-event information. In their famous study, participants watched a car accident video and were asked to estimate speed. The verb used in the question ('smashed' vs 'contacted') influenced the estimates. This shows that memory is reconstructive and can be altered by language.
伊丽莎白·洛夫特斯与约翰·帕尔默证明，对事件的记忆可被事后误导信息所歪曲。在他们著名的研究中，参与者观看车祸视频后被要求估计车速。提问中使用的动词（“猛撞” vs “接触”）影响了估计值。这表明记忆是重构性的，且可被语言改变。
Leading Question → Schema Activation → Biased Recall
引导性问题 → 图式激活 → 偏差回忆
- Participants who heard 'smashed' estimated 40.8 mph on average; 'contacted' yielded 31.8 mph.
- 听到“猛撞”的参与者平均估计时速为40.8英里；“接触”则为31.8英里。
- This has important implications for eyewitness testimony reliability.
- 这对目击证词的可信度具有重要意义。
11. Asch Conformity Paradigm | 阿希从众范式
Solomon Asch (1951) investigated conformity to group pressure using a line judgement task. Participants were seated in a group of confederates who intentionally gave wrong answers. About 75% of real participants conformed at least once; overall conformity rate was around 37%. The experiment reveals that social influence can override objective perceptual judgement.
所罗门·阿希（1951年）采用线条判断任务研究群体压力下的从众行为。参与者与一群故意给出错误答案的假被试坐在一起。约75%的真被试至少从众一次；整体从众率约为37%。该实验表明，社会影响可以压倒客观的知觉判断。
Conformity Likelihood = f(Group size, Unanimity, Task difficulty)
从众可能性 = f（群体规模、一致性、任务难度）
- Conformity peaked with a group of 3–4 confederates.
- 当假被试人数为3-4人时，从众达到顶峰。
- If one confederate gave the correct answer (broke unanimity), conformity dropped sharply.
- 若有一名假被试给出正确答案（打破一致性），从众率大幅下降。
12. Descriptive Statistics: Mean, Median, Mode, Range, and Percentage Change | 描述统计：均值、中位数、众数、范围与百分比变化
In psychology, we use descriptive statistics to summarise and present data. The key measures of central tendency and spread can be expressed as simple formulas. Percentage change is particularly useful when comparing before-and-after scores in intervention studies.
在心理学中，我们使用描述统计来总结和呈现数据。主要的集中趋势和离散程度测量可以表示为简单的公式。在干预研究中比较前后测分数时，百分比变化尤为有用。
Mean = Σx / n
均值 = Σx / n
Median = middle value in ordered list
中位数 = 排序列表中的中间值
Mode = most frequent value
众数 = 出现频率最高的值
Range = highest value – lowest value
范围 = 最大值 – 最小值
Percentage Change = (New value – Old value) / Old value × 100%
百分比变化 = （新值 – 旧值）/ 旧值 × 100%
- Mean is sensitive to extreme scores; median is robust against outliers.
- 均值对极端分数敏感；中位数对异常值稳健。
- Range gives a quick indication of spread but ignores the distribution of values.
- 范围能快速反映离散情况，但忽略了数值的分布。
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