📚 Year 8 WJEC PE: Quick Reference Formula and Principle Handbook | Year 8 WJEC 体育：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your essential quick reference handbook for Year 8 WJEC Physical Education. This guide brings together the key formulas, principles and calculation methods that underpin performance analysis, fitness testing and movement understanding. Whether you are calculating your target heart rate zone, estimating energy expenditure or applying mechanical principles to sport, this handbook will serve as your reliable revision companion.
欢迎使用这本为 Year 8 WJEC 体育课程量身打造的核心速查手册。本手册汇总了影响运动表现分析、体能测试和动作理解的关键公式、定理与计算方法。无论你是在计算目标心率区间、估算能量消耗，还是将力学原理运用到运动项目中，这本手册都将成为你可靠的复习伙伴。
1. Maximum Heart Rate (HRmax) Estimation | 最大心率估算
mation formula subtracts your age from 220. For example, a 12-year-old would have an estimated HRmax of 220 - 12 = 208 bpm. Understanding your HRmax helps set safe and effective training intensities.
HRmax = 220 - age
最大心率（HRmax）是指你在极限强度运动中每分钟心跳所能达到的最高次数。最常用的估算公式是用 220 减去你的年龄。例如，一个 12 岁的学生估算的最大心率为 220 - 12 = 208 次/分。了解你自己的最大心率有助于设定安全有效的训练强度。
2. Target Heart Rate Zones (Karvonen Formula) | 目标心率区间（卡沃宁公式）
ax − resting heart rate (RHR). Then target heart rate = RHR + (desired intensity fraction × HRR). For aerobic endurance, the intensity fraction is typically 0.6 to 0.8 (60–80% HRR). This method is more precise because it accounts for your resting fitness level.
Target HR = RHR + (Intensity × (HRmax − RHR))
卡沃宁公式利用心率储备（HRR）来计算个性化目标心率。先求心率储备：HRR = 最大心率 − 安静心率（RHR）。然后目标心率 = RHR +（期望强度百分比 × HRR）。对于有氧耐力训练，强度百分比通常取 0.6 至 0.8（60%–80% HRR）。这种方法更加精准，因为它考虑了你的安静体能水平。
3. Body Mass Index (BMI) | 身体质量指数
Body Mass Index is a simple screening tool used to classify underweight, healthy weight, overweight and obesity in populations. It is calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in metres. While it does not distinguish between muscle and fat mass, it provides a useful baseline for health-related fitness discussions in PE.
BMI = weight (kg) / height² (m)
身体质量指数是一种简单的筛查工具，用于将人群划分为体重过轻、健康体重、超重和肥胖。计算方法是体重（kg）除以身高（m）的平方。尽管它无法区分肌肉与脂肪重量，但在体育与健康相关的体能讨论中仍能提供一个有用的参考基线。
4. Speed Calculation | 速度计算
seconds, her speed is 100 ÷ 12.5 = 8 m/s. This relationship is fundamental for analysing performances in running, swimming and cycling.
Speed = distance / time
速度衡量运动员通过某段距离的快慢。基础公式将速度、距离和时间联系起来。如果一名短跑运动员用 12.5 秒完成 100 米，她的速度为 100 ÷ 12.5 = 8 米/秒。这个关系是分析跑步、游泳和自行车等项目运动表现的基础。
5. Acceleration | 加速度
Acceleration describes the rate at which an athlete changes velocity. It is calculated by dividing the change in velocity by the time taken for that change. Positive acceleration means speeding up; negative acceleration (deceleration) means slowing down. Quick acceleration is crucial in sports such as football, tennis and basketball where rapid changes of direction occur.
a = (v − u) / t
（v = final velocity 末速度, u = initial velocity 初速度, t = time 时间）
加速度描述运动员速度变化的快慢，计算方法是用速度的变化量除以变化所用的时间。正加速度表示加速，负加速度（减速度）表示减速。在足球、网球和篮球等需要快速变向的体育项目中，爆发性的加速度至关重要。
6. Force and Newton's Second Law | 力与牛顿第二定律
Newton' greater force to accelerate. In sport, athletes apply force against the ground, water or equipment to produce movement. Additionally, the weight of an athlete or object is calculated using the formula weight = mass × gravitational field strength (g = 10 N/kg on Earth).
F = m × a
Weight (N) = mass (kg) × g (N/kg), g ≈ 10 N/kg
牛顿第二定律指出，物体所受合力等于物体的质量乘以加速度。这解释了为什么推更重的铅球需要更大的力量。在运动中，运动员通过对地面、水或器材施加力来产生运动。此外，运动员或物体的重量可用公式重量 = 质量 × 重力场强度（地球上 g 取 10 牛/千克）计算。
7. Levers and Mechanical Advantage | 杠杆与机械效益
Levers are rigid structures that rotate around a fulcrum to multiply the effect of an applied effort force. In the human body, bones act as levers, joints are fulcrums and muscles provide the effort. The mechanical advantage (MA) of a lever is the ratio of the effort arm length to the resistance arm length. An MA greater than 1 means the lever amplifies force, which is useful for lifting heavy loads but reduces speed.
MA = effort arm / resistance arm
杠杆是围绕支点旋转的刚性结构，可以放大所施加的动力。在人体中，骨骼充当杠杆，关节是支点，肌肉提供动力。杠杆的机械效益（MA）是动力臂长度与阻力臂长度之比。机械效益大于 1 表示该杠杆能放大力量，有助于举起重物，但会牺牲速度。
8. Power Output | 功率输出
Power measures the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. In physical education, power is often seen as a combination of strength and speed. It can be calculated by dividing work done by time, or by multiplying force by velocity. Powerful movements like a vertical jump or a fast throw depend on generating a large amount of force in a very short time.
P = W / t
P = F × v
（P = power 功率, W = work done 做功, t = time 时间, F = force 力, v = velocity 速度）
功率衡量做功或能量转移的快慢。在体育中，功率常被视为力量与速度的结合。功率可以通过做功除以时间计算，也可以用力乘以速度计算。纵跳或快速投掷等爆发性动作都依赖于在极短时间内产生巨大的力量。
9. Calorie Expenditure (METs) | 热量消耗（代谢当量）
Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) expresses the energy cost of physical activities as multiples of resting metabolic rate. One MET is the energy used while sitting quietly. To estimate calories burned during an activity, multiply the MET value by body weight in kilograms and by the duration of the activity in hours. This formula helps compare the energy demands of different sports and exercises.
Calories (kcal) = MET × weight (kg) × time (hours)
代谢当量（MET）以静息代谢率的倍数来表示身体活动的能量消耗。1 MET 是安静坐位时的能量消耗。要估算一项活动消耗的热量，将 MET 值乘以体重（千克）再乘以活动时间（小时）。这个公式有助于比较不同运动项目的能量需求。
10. FITT Principle | FITT 原则
The FITT principle is a framework for designing an effective exercise programme. It stands for Frequency (how often you exercise), Intensity (how hard you work), Time (duration of each session) and Type (the kind of exercise). Adjusting any of these four variables allows you to apply progressive overload safely and achieve specific fitness goals. FITT is applied across all training methods, from circuit training to continuous running.
| Component | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Frequency | How often you exercise per week | 3–5 days per week |
| Intensity | How hard you work (e.g., %HRmax) | 60–80% HRmax |
| Time | Duration of the exercise session | 30–60 minutes |
| Type | The mode or kind of activity | Running, cycling, swimming |
FITT 原则是设计有效运动计划的框架，包含频率（每周锻炼几次）、强度（运动时有多努力）、时间（每次锻炼的持续时间）和类型（运动的种类）。调整这四个变量中的任何一个都可以让你安全地施加渐进超负荷，达成特定的体能目标。FITT 原则适用于所有训练方法，从循环训练到持续跑。
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