📚 Year 8 AQA Philosophy: Key Vocabulary Quick-Reference Guide | Year 8 AQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to your Year 8 AQA Philosophy terminology guide. Mastering the language of philosophy will help you build clear arguments, question assumptions, and engage with big ideas. Each section below introduces essential terms with simple definitions, examples, and memory tips to support your revision.
欢迎使用你的 Year 8 AQA 哲学术语指南。掌握哲学的语言能够帮助你构建清晰的论证、质疑假设并探讨宏大思想。以下每个部分都介绍了基础术语，附有简明定义、示例和记忆技巧，帮助你高效复习。
1. Arguments and Reasoning | 论证与推理
A philosophical argument is a structured set of statements where one or more premises are offered to support a conclusion. It is not a quarrel but a logical chain of reasons.
哲学论证是一组有结构的陈述，其中一个或多个前提被用来支持结论。它不同于争吵，而是一条由理由组成的逻辑链条。
A premise is a statement that provides a reason or evidence in an argument. A conclusion is the claim the argument is trying to establish. Think: Premises lead to conclusion.
前提是在论证中提供理由或证据的陈述。结论是论证试图确立的主张。记忆法：前提通向结论。
Reasoning is the process of moving from premises to a conclusion. Inductive reasoning draws a probable conclusion based on patterns; deductive reasoning aims to guarantee the truth of the conclusion if the premises are true.
推理是从前提到结论的过程。归纳推理基于模式得出可能的结论；演绎推理旨在确保前提为真时结论必然为真。
An inference is the mental step from evidence to conclusion. In evaluating arguments, always ask: Do the premises support the inference?
推论是从证据到结论的心理步骤。在评价论证时，要问：前提是否支持该推论？
2. Knowledge and Belief | 知识与信念
Knowledge is often defined as justified true belief. To know something, you must believe it, it must be true, and you must have good reasons (justification) for that belief.
知识常被定义为得到辩护的真信念。要知道某事，你必须相信它、它为真，并且你有充分的理由（辩护）来支持这一信念。
Belief is the acceptance that a statement is true, even without complete proof. Philosophers distinguish between true belief and mere opinion.
信念是对某一陈述为真的接受，即便没有完整的证据。哲学家区分了真信念和单纯的意见。
Justification is the evidence or reasoning that supports a belief. Without justification, a true belief might just be a lucky guess and not genuine knowledge.
辩护是支持信念的证据或推理。没有辩护的真信念可能只是侥幸猜中，而非真正的知识。
Evidence is the information or facts used to support a claim. In philosophy, good evidence must be relevant, credible, and logically connected to the conclusion.
证据是用来支持主张的信息或事实。在哲学中，好的证据必须相关、可信且与结论在逻辑上关联。
3. Scepticism and Certainty | 怀疑论与确定性
Scepticism is the view that we can never be completely certain of our knowledge. The philosophical sceptic questions whether our senses, memory, or reasoning can provide absolute certainty.
怀疑论认为我们永远无法对自己的知识完全确定。哲学怀疑论者质疑我们的感官、记忆或推理是否能提供绝对的确定性。
Descartes' famous 'evil demon' thought experiment illustrates radical scepticism: what if everything we experience is an illusion? This pushes us to find foundations for knowledge.
笛卡尔著名的“恶魔”思想实验展示了彻底的怀疑论：如果我们体验到的一切都是幻觉呢？这促使我们为知识寻找根基。
Certainty is the state of being without any doubt. Philosophers ask whether certainty is possible outside of logic and mathematics. Empirical claims about the world are rarely absolutely certain.
确定性是指没有任何怀疑的状态。哲学家追问，在逻辑和数学之外确定性是否可能。关于世界的经验性主张很少是绝对确定的。
The 'brain in a vat' scenario is a modern sceptical challenge: if you were a brain in a vat with simulated experiences, could you know anything about the real world?
“缸中之脑”情景是现代怀疑论挑战：假如你是一个泡在缸中的大脑，体验皆为模拟，你能知道现实世界的任何事情吗？
4. Ethics and Moral Theories | 伦理与道德理论
Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with questions of right and wrong, good and bad. Morality refers to the actual beliefs and practices about how we ought to live.
伦理学是哲学分支，关注对错善恶问题。道德则指关于我们该如何生活的具体信念和实践。
Utilitarianism is the ethical theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure and minimises suffering. Think: 'the greatest good for the greatest number'.
功利主义是一种伦理理论，认为正确的行为是能最大化总体幸福或快乐、最小化痛苦的行为。记忆：'最大多数人的最大善'。
Deontology, associated with Immanuel Kant, argues that actions are right or wrong in themselves, based on duties and rules, not just on consequences. The 'categorical imperative' demands that we act only according to rules that could become universal laws.
道义论与康德相关，主张行为本身基于义务和规则而具有对错，而不仅仅是看后果。“绝对命令”要求我们只按照能成为普遍法则的规则行事。
Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than on rules or consequences. It asks: what kind of person should I be? Key virtues include courage, honesty, and compassion.
德性伦理学关注道德主体的品格，而非规则或后果。它追问：我应当成为什么样的人？关键德性包括勇敢、诚实和同情。
5. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free will is the ability to make choices that are genuinely up to us, without being forced by external factors or predetermined causes. Most moral responsibility seems to require free will.
自由意志是能够做出真正由我们自己决定的选择的能力，不受外部因素或预定的原因逼迫。道德责任大多似乎要求自由意志。
Determinism is the theory that every event, including human actions, is the necessary result of previous causes. If the universe follows strict causal laws, are our choices ever free?
决定论认为每一个事件，包括人类行为，都是先前原因的必然结果。如果宇宙遵循严格的因果律，我们的选择还是自由的吗？
Compatibilism is the view that free will and determinism can coexist. Some philosophers argue that free will just means acting according to your own desires without external coercion, even if those desires are caused.
相容论认为自由意志与决定论可以并存。一些哲学家主张，自由意志仅意味着按自己的欲望行动而不受外部强制，即使这些欲望本身是被引起的。
Libertarianism (in metaphysics) holds that we do have free will and that determinism is false. It often appeals to the idea of agent causation, where we can initiate new causal chains.
形上学中的自由意志主义认为我们确实拥有自由意志，并且决定论是错误的。它常诉诸行为者原因的观念，即我们能启动新的因果链。
6. The Mind-Body Problem | 心身问题
The mind-body problem asks: what is the relationship between our mental states (thoughts, feelings) and our physical brain and body? Are they the same thing or different substances?
心身问题追问：我们的心理状态（思想、感受）与物理的大脑和身体之间是什么关系？它们是同一事物还是不同的实体？
Dualism, most famously defended by Descartes, claims that mind and body are two distinct substances. The mind is non-physical and thinking; the body is physical and extended in space.
二元论，最著名的由笛卡尔辩护，声称心灵和身体是两种不同的实体。心灵是非物质的、思维着的；身体是物质的且在空间中延展。
Physicalism (or materialism) is the view that everything that exists is physical, including the mind. Mental states are identical to brain states or functions of the brain.
物理主义（或唯物主义）认为存在的一切都是物理的，包括心灵。心理状态等同于大脑状态或大脑的功能。
The 'hard problem of consciousness' asks why and how physical processes in the brain give rise to subjective experience – the 'what it is like' aspect of seeing red or feeling pain.
“意识的困难问题”追问，为什么以及大脑中的物理过程如何产生主观体验——看到红色或感受疼痛时的“像是什么”的方面。
7. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
Theism is belief in the existence of a God or gods, typically one who is all-knowing, all-powerful, and all-good. Atheism is the absence of belief in any deity. Agnosticism is the view that we cannot know whether God exists.
有神论是相信存在一位或多位神，通常是一位全知、全能、全善的神。无神论是不信仰任何神明。不可知论认为我们无法知道神是否存在。
The design argument (teleological argument) claims that the complexity and order in the universe suggest an intelligent designer. William Paley's watchmaker analogy compares the universe to a watch needing a maker.
设计论证（目的论论证）主张宇宙的复杂性和秩序暗示着一位智能的设计者。威廉·佩利的钟表匠类比将宇宙比作需要制造者的钟表。
The cosmological argument says that everything that exists has a cause, so there must be a first cause (God) that started the chain of causation. The Kalam version asks: what caused the universe to begin?
宇宙论论证认为一切存在的事物都有原因，因此必然有一个最初的原因（神）启动了因果链条。卡拉姆版本追问：是什么导致宇宙开始？
The problem of evil challenges the existence of an all-powerful, all-good God given the presence of suffering. If God could prevent evil but doesn't, is He truly all-good?
恶的问题挑战全知全能全善之神的存在，指出世间存在苦难。如果神能阻止恶却不做，祂真的是全善的吗？
8. Logic: Validity and Soundness | 逻辑：有效性与可靠性
In deductive logic, an argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. It does not matter if the premises are actually true; validity concerns the form of reasoning.
在演绎逻辑中，如果结论能从前提逻辑地推出，论证就是有效的。前提是否实际为真并不重要；有效性关乎推理形式。
A sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises. Soundness guarantees a true conclusion. Aim for soundness when building your own philosophical arguments.
可靠的论证是前提全部为真且有效的论证。可靠性保证结论为真。在构建自己的哲学论证时，要力求可靠。
For example: Premise 1: All Year 8 students are curious. Premise 2: Amina is a Year 8 student. Conclusion: Therefore, Amina is curious. This is valid. It is sound only if the premises are true.
例如：前提1：所有八年级学生都充满好奇。前提2：阿米娜是八年级学生。结论：所以阿米娜充满好奇。这个论证有效。只有当前提为真时才可靠。
An invalid argument fails even if its premises and conclusion are true. Validity is about structure, not content. Common invalid forms include affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent.
无效论证即便前提和结论为真也失败。有效性关乎结构而非内容。常见的无效形式包括肯定后件和否定前件。
9. Common Fallacies | 常见谬误
A fallacy is an error in reasoning that weakens an argument. Recognising fallacies helps you think critically and avoid being misled. Ad hominem attacks the person instead of the argument.
谬误是削弱论证的推理错误。识别谬误有助于你批判性思考，避免被误导。人身攻击谬误针对个人而非论证本身。
The straw man fallacy misrepresents an opponent's position to make it easier to attack. Instead of engaging with the real argument, you set up a distorted version and knock it down.
稻草人谬误歪曲对方的立场使其更容易被攻击。你没有回应真正的论证，而是设立一个扭曲的版本并打倒它。
Appeal to popularity (bandwagon fallacy) assumes something is true because many people believe it. But popularity is not evidence. A belief can be widely held yet false.
诉诸流行（从众谬误）假定某事因为很多人相信就是真的。但流行不是证据。一个信念可以被广泛持有却仍是错的。
A false dilemma presents only two options when more exist. Example: 'Either you love philosophy or you hate thinking.' This ignores the possibility of moderate interest or alternative subjects.
假两难推理只给出两个选项，而实际存在更多。例如：'你要么热爱哲学，要么憎恨思考。'这忽略了中等兴趣或其他学科的可能。
10. Key Thinkers and Quick Links | 关键思想家与速连
Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) taught through questioning and is famous for saying 'The unexamined life is not worth living.' His Socratic method involves asking probing questions to test ideas.
苏格拉底（约公元前470–399年）通过提问教学，以“未经审视的人生不值得过”闻名。他的苏格拉底方法使用探询性问题检验思想。
Plato (c. 428–348 BCE), a student of Socrates, wrote about ideal forms and the allegory of the cave. He believed that the visible world is a shadow of a higher reality.
柏拉图（约公元前428–348年），苏格拉底的学生，著书论述理想形式和洞穴寓言。他认为可见世界是更高实在的影子。
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) emphasised empirical observation and logic. His virtue ethics focuses on finding the 'golden mean' between extremes of character.
亚里士多德（公元前384–322年）强调经验观察和逻辑。他的德性伦理学关注寻找品格极端之间的“黄金中道”。
In the modern era, Descartes (1596–1650) is known for 'I think, therefore I am' and mind-body dualism. Hume (1711–1776) explored scepticism and the limits of reason, while Kant (1724–1804) developed deontological ethics and examined the conditions of knowledge.
近代中，笛卡尔（1596–1650）以“我思故我在”和心身二元论著称。休谟（1711–1776）探讨怀疑论与理性的局限，康德（1724–1804）则发展了道义论伦理学并检视知识的条件。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
或截图后用「扫一扫 → 相册」选择本图