📚 Year 8 AQA Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memory Guide | Year 8 AQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering key philosophical vocabulary is essential for success in Year 8 AQA Philosophy. This guide provides concise definitions and explanations of the most important terms you will encounter, helping you to think clearly, argue effectively, and understand the big ideas. Use it for quick revision and memory boosts.
掌握关键的哲学术语对 Year 8 AQA 哲学课程的成功至关重要。本指南简洁地定义和解释了你会遇到的最重要术语，帮助你清晰地思考、有效地论证并理解这些重要思想。用于快速复习和记忆提升。
1. What is Philosophy? | 什么是哲学？
Philosophy – From Greek 'philo-sophia' meaning 'love of wisdom'. It is the rational investigation of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
哲学 – 源自希腊语“爱智慧”。它是对存在、知识、价值、理性、心灵和语言等根本问题的理性探究。
Metaphysics – The branch that studies the nature of reality. It asks whether things like numbers, universals, or free will really exist, and explores concepts such as time, space, and causation.
形而上学 – 研究实在本质的分支。它追问诸如数字、共相或自由意志是否真正存在，并探讨时间、空间、因果等概念。
Epistemology – The theory of knowledge. It investigates what knowledge is, how we acquire it, and what justifies our beliefs. Key question: 'How do we know what we know?'
认识论 – 知识理论。它研究什么是知识、我们如何获得知识以及什么为信念提供辩护。核心问题：“我们如何知道自己所知道的？”
Ethics – Moral philosophy. It examines how we ought to live, what makes actions right or wrong, and concepts like justice, virtue, and responsibility.
伦理学 – 道德哲学。它考查我们应该如何生活、什么使得行为对或错，以及正义、美德、责任等概念。
Logic – The study of correct reasoning. Logic provides rules for constructing valid arguments and identifying fallacies.
逻辑学 – 研究正确推理的学科。逻辑为构造有效论证和识别谬误提供规则。
2. Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions | 论证、前提与结论
Argument – In philosophy, a set of statements where some (premises) are intended to support another statement (conclusion). Not a quarrel, but a reasoned case.
论证 – 在哲学中，指一组陈述，其中一些陈述（前提）旨在支持另一陈述（结论）。不是争吵，而是有条理的推理。
Premise – A statement offered as evidence or a reason in an argument. A good premise is clear, relevant, and plausible.
前提 – 在论证中作为证据或理由提供的陈述。一个好的前提是清晰、相关且合理的。
Conclusion – The statement that the premises are meant to establish. It is the claim the arguer wants you to accept.
结论 – 前提旨在确立的陈述。它是论证者希望你接受的主张。
Inference – The logical step from premises to conclusion. Recognising inferences helps you evaluate whether the conclusion follows.
推理 – 从前提走向结论的逻辑步骤。识别推理过程有助于你评价结论是否必然得出。
3. Validity and Soundness | 有效性与可靠性
Validity – A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. It means if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity concerns the argument's structure, not actual truth.
有效性 – 如果一个演绎论证的结论在逻辑上从前提必然得出，那么它就是有效的。它意味着如果前提为真，结论必为真。有效性关乎论证结构，而非实际真值。
Soundness – A sound argument is valid and has all true premises. Soundness guarantees a true conclusion. Philosophers aim for sound arguments.
可靠性 – 一个可靠的论证是有效且所有前提都为真的论证。可靠性保证了结论为真。哲学家追求可靠的论证。
Counterexample – A scenario that shows an argument form is invalid, or a definition is flawed. It is a powerful tool for testing philosophical claims.
反例 – 能表明一个论证形式无效或一个定义有缺陷的设想情景。它是检验哲学主张的有力工具。
4. Deduction and Induction | 演绎与归纳
Deductive Argument – An argument aiming for validity: the conclusion necessarily follows if premises are true. Mathematics and geometry often use deduction. Example: All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.
演绎论证 – 旨在达成有效性的论证：如果前提为真，结论就必然得出。数学和几何常使用演绎。例：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。
Inductive Argument – An argument where premises make the conclusion probable, not certain. Used in science and daily life. Example: The sun has risen every day in recorded history; therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.
归纳论证 – 前提使结论可能但不必然的论证。科学和日常生活常用。例：有史以来太阳每天都升起；所以明天太阳也会升起。
Strength (Inductive) – A strong inductive argument makes the conclusion highly probable if the premises are true. Weak arguments fail to provide enough support.
强度（归纳） – 强归纳论证使得结论在前提为真时具有很高的概率。弱论证则未能提供足够支持。
Cogency – An inductive argument is cogent if it is strong and all its premises are actually true. It is the inductive equivalent of soundness.
可信性 – 如果一个归纳论证强度高且其所有前提实际上都为真，那么它就是可信的。这是归纳中的可靠性等价概念。
5. Ethics: Foundations of Morality | 伦理学：道德的基础
Morality – Principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behaviour. A moral system guides how we treat others and ourselves.
道德 – 关于区分对与错、善与恶行为的原则。一个道德体系指引我们如何对待他人和自身。
Moral Agent – An individual capable of making ethical decisions and being held responsible for actions. Human adults are typically considered moral agents.
道德主体 – 能够做出伦理决定并为其行为负责的个体。成年人类通常被视为道德主体。
Amoral vs. Immoral – Amoral means lacking moral sense or not open to moral evaluation (e.g., a newborn). Immoral means deliberately violating moral principles.
非道德与不道德 – 非道德指缺乏道德感或不属于道德评价范围（如新生儿）。不道德指故意违反道德原则。
Moral Dilemma – A situation where a person must choose between two or more conflicting moral obligations, and neither option is clearly right. Famous examples include the trolley problem.
道德困境 – 一个人必须在两个或更多相互冲突的道德义务之间做出选择、且任一选项都不明显正确的情境。著名例子包括电车难题。
6. Utilitarianism | 功利主义
Utilitarianism – An ethical theory stating that the best action is the one that maximises overall happiness or 'utility'. Its core principle is 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number'.
功利主义 – 一种伦理理论，主张最好的行为是能最大化总体幸福或“效用”的行为。其核心原则是“最大多数人的最大幸福”。
Principle of Utility – Also called the Greatest Happiness Principle. It evaluates actions based on their consequences: do they increase pleasure and reduce pain?
功利原则 – 亦称最大幸福原则。它根据后果评价行为：是否增加快乐、减少痛苦？
Hedonism – The view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic evil. Classical utilitarianism adopts a hedonistic value theory.
享乐主义 – 认为快乐是唯一内在的善、而痛苦是唯一内在的恶的观点。古典功利主义采用一种享乐主义价值理论。
Consequentialism – The family of ethical theories, including utilitarianism, that judge the rightness or wrongness of an action solely by its outcomes.
后果论 – 包括功利主义在内的一类伦理理论，它们仅凭行为的结果来判断其对错。
7. Deontology | 道义论
Deontology – An ethical theory that focuses on duty and rules, rather than consequences. An action is right if it follows a moral rule, regardless of the outcome. Immanuel Kant is its most famous proponent.
道义论 – 一种聚焦于义务和规则而非后果的伦理理论。一个行为只要遵循道德规则就是正确的，不管结果如何。伊曼努尔·康德是其最著名的倡导者。
Categorical Imperative – Kant's supreme moral principle. One formulation: 'Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.' It requires treating people as ends, never merely as means.
绝对命令 – 康德的最高道德原则。一种表述是：“只按照你同时能够愿意它成为普遍法则的那个准则去行动。”它要求永远把人当作目的，而不仅仅是手段。
Duty (Moral) – In deontology, an action that reason demands regardless of personal inclinations or consequences. Duties are unconditional and binding.
义务（道德） – 在道义论中，指理性要求的行为，不论个人喜好或后果如何。义务是无条件且有约束力的。
8. Virtue Ethics | 美德伦理
Virtue Ethics – An approach that emphasises the character of the moral agent rather than rules or consequences. It asks, 'What would a virtuous person do?' Aristotle's ethical framework is the classic example.
美德伦理 – 一种强调道德主体品格而非规则或后果的道路。它问的是：“一个有美德的人会怎么做？”亚里士多德的伦理框架是典型范例。
Eudaimonia – Often translated as 'flourishing' or 'well-being'. For Aristotle, it is the ultimate goal of human life, achieved by living virtuously over a complete life.
幸福（Eudaimonia） – 常译作“兴盛”或“福祉”。对亚里士多德而言，它是人生的终极目标，通过在一生中践行美德来实现。
Vice – A character trait that is either an excess or deficiency of a virtue. For example, cowardice is a vice (deficiency of courage), and recklessness is the excess.
恶习 – 一种品格特质，是某种美德的过度或不足。例如，怯懦是勇气的不足，鲁莽则是其过度。
Golden Mean – Aristotle's idea that virtue lies at the moderate midpoint between two extremes (vices). Courage is the mean between cowardice and recklessness.
中庸之道 – 亚里士多德的观点，认为美德位于两个极端（恶习）之间的适度中点。勇气就是怯懦与鲁莽的中庸。
9. Free Will vs. Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free Will – The capacity of agents to choose between different possible courses of action unimpeded. It is often linked to moral responsibility.
自由意志 – 主体能在不同可能的行为进程之间不受阻碍地选择的能力。它通常与道德责任相关联。
Determinism – The view that every event, including human decisions, is causally necessitated by prior events and natural laws. If true, the future is fixed.
决定论 – 认为每个事件，包括人的决定，都由先前事件和自然法则因果必然地决定。如果为真，则未来是固定的。
Compatibilism – The thesis that free will and determinism are compatible. Compatibilists often redefine free will as acting according to one's desires without external coercion, even if desires are determined.
相容论 – 认为自由意志与决定论可以兼容的论点。相容论者常将自由意志重新定义为按自己的欲望行动且无外在强制，即使欲望本身是被决定的。
Libertarianism (Metaphysical) – The view that free will exists and determinism is false. It posits that humans have genuine alternative possibilities at the moment of choice.
自由意志论（形而上学） – 认为自由意志存在且决定论为假的观点。它主张人类在选择的那一刻拥有真正的其他可能选项。
10. The Mind-Body Problem | 心身问题
Mind-Body Problem – The philosophical puzzle about how mental states (thoughts, feelings) relate to physical states (brain, body). Are they separate substances, or is the mind purely physical?
心身问题 – 关于心理状态（思想、情感）如何与物理状态（大脑、身体）相关联的哲学难题。它们是不同的实体，还是心灵纯粹是物理的？
Dualism – The view that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct kinds of substances. René Descartes famously argued that the mind is a thinking, non-extended substance, while the body is extended matter.
二元论 – 认为心灵与身体是两种根本不同的实体的观点。勒内·笛卡尔著名地论证，心灵是思考的、非广延的实体，而身体是广延的物质。
Materialism (Physicalism) – The theory that everything, including the mind, is physical or supervenes on the physical. Mental states are brain states. There is no ghost in the machine.
唯物主义（物理主义） – 认为一切事物，包括心灵，都是物理的或随附于物理的理论。心理状态就是大脑状态。机器中没有幽灵。
11. Personal Identity | 人格同一性
Personal Identity – The philosophical problem of what makes a person the same person over time. If you change completely, what keeps you 'you'?
人格同一性 – 关于是什么使得一个人在不同时间仍是同一个人的哲学问题。如果你彻底改变了，是什么让“你”仍然是“你”？
Psychological Continuity Theory – The view that personal identity is maintained by overlapping chains of psychological connections, such as memories, beliefs, and desires. John Locke proposed a memory-based account.
心理连续性理论 – 认为人格同一性由重叠的心理联系链维持的观点，这些联系包括记忆、信念和欲望。约翰·洛克提出了基于记忆的论述。
Bodily Continuity Theory – The view that the same living human body is necessary and sufficient for personal identity. You are your organism, even if memories change.
身体连续性理论 – 认为同一个活的人体是人格同一性的必要且充分条件的观点。你就是你的有机体，即使记忆改变。
Ship of Theseus – A thought experiment often used to discuss identity over time. If all the parts of a ship are gradually replaced, is it still the same ship? Applied to persons: are you still you if all your cells change?
忒修斯之船 – 常用于讨论历时同一性的思想实验。如果一艘船的所有部件被逐渐替换，它还是同一条船吗？应用于人：如果你的所有细胞都更换了，你还是你吗？
12. Knowledge, Belief, and Truth | 知识、信念与真理
Knowledge – Traditionally defined as justified true belief: you know something if you believe it, it is true, and you have good reasons (justification). Plato's Theaetetus explores this definition.
知识 – 传统上被定义为得到辩护的真信念：你相信某事、它为真且你有好的理由（辩护）时，你就知道了它。柏拉图的《泰阿泰德篇》探讨了这一界定。
Belief – A propositional attitude of holding something to be true. Beliefs can be true or false. Knowledge requires belief, but belief alone is not knowledge.
信念 – 将某事视之为真的一种命题态度。信念可真可假。知识需要信念，但仅有信念并不构成知识。
Truth – A property of statements that correspond to reality. Philosophers debate theories of truth, such as correspondence theory (a statement is true if it matches facts) and coherence theory (true if it fits within a consistent system).
真理 – 陈述符合实在的属性。哲学家们争论真理理论，如符合论（若陈述与事实相符则为真）和融贯论（若它在融贯的系统内则真）。
Justification – The reasons or evidence that support a belief and make it rationally acceptable. Descartes sought indubitable justification to ground knowledge.
辩护 – 支撑一个信念并使其在理性上可接受的理由或证据。笛卡尔寻求无可置疑的辩护来奠基知识。
Gettier Problem – Cases where someone has a justified true belief but still seems to lack knowledge due to luck. These counterexamples show the classic analysis might be incomplete.
盖梯尔问题 – 指某人拥有得到辩护的真信念，但由于运气似乎仍缺乏知识的情境。这些反例表明经典分析可能不完整。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
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