📚 Psychology Formula & Principle Quick Reference Guide | 心理学公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your Year 8 AQA Psychology quick reference guide! This handbook compiles the key formulas, principles, and essential 'theorems' you need to know for your psychology course. From memory models to research ethics, each entry pairs a core idea with a simple rule or numerical expression, helping you revise quickly and confidently.
欢迎使用你的8年级AQA心理学速查手册！这份手册整理了你需要掌握的心理学关键公式、原理和重要"定理"。从记忆模型到研究伦理，每个条目都将核心概念与简单的法则或数值表达配对，帮助你快速、自信地复习。
1. The Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM) Formula | 记忆多储存模型公式
The Multi-Store Model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), describes memory as a flow of information through three separate stores: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM). You can think of it as a formula:
多储存模型由阿特金森和希夫林（1968）提出，将记忆描述为信息流经三个不同的储存库：感觉记忆、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。你可以把它看作一个公式：
Sensory Input → Sensory Memory → (Attention) → STM → (Rehearsal) → LTM
Information that is not attended to is lost from sensory memory within seconds. Without rehearsal, STM traces decay rapidly. With elaborative rehearsal, information transfers into LTM for permanent storage.
没有受到注意的信息会在几秒内从感觉记忆中丢失。没有复述，短时记忆的痕迹会迅速消退。通过精细复述，信息会转入长时记忆进行永久储存。
2. Peterson & Peterson's STM Duration | 彼得森和彼得森的短时记忆持续时间
Peterson and Peterson (1959) tested how long information stays in STM without rehearsal. They found that STM duration is very limited. The key finding can be expressed as:
彼得森和彼得森（1959）测试了信息在没有复述的情况下能在短时记忆中保持多久。他们发现短时记忆的持续时间非常有限。关键发现可以表达为：
STM Duration without rehearsal ≈ 18 – 30 seconds
After 3 seconds, recall was around 80%, but after 18 seconds, it dropped to less than 10%.
3秒后，回忆率约为80%，但18秒后，下降到不足10%。
3. Miller's Magic Number 7±2 | 米勒的神奇数字7±2
George Miller (1956) discovered that the capacity of STM is about 7 items, plus or minus 2. This can be written as:
乔治·米勒（1956）发现，短时记忆的容量大约是7个项目，加减2个。这可以写作：
STM Capacity = 7 ± 2 chunks
A 'chunk' is a meaningful unit of information. For example, 'IBM' is one chunk, but 'I', 'B', 'M' would be three chunks.
一个"组块"是有意义的信息单位。例如，"IBM"是一个组块，但"I"、"B"、"M"就是三个组块。
4. Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) studied forgetting by learning nonsense syllables. He found that forgetting happens most rapidly soon after learning, and then levels off. The pattern can be summarized by a curve, and a rough formula for retention over time is:
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯（1885）通过学习无意义音节研究了遗忘。他发现学习后不久遗忘发生得最快，然后趋于平缓。这一模式可以用曲线概括，随时间遗忘的粗略公式为：
Retention drops sharply: ~50% lost after 1 hour, ~70% after 24 hours (without review)
This shows the importance of revision to strengthen long-term memory.
这表明复习对巩固长时记忆的重要性。
5. Loftus & Palmer's Leading Question Principle | 洛夫特斯和帕尔默的引导性问题原理
Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed how the wording of a question can alter memory recall. Participants watched car accident videos and were asked to estimate speed. The estimated speed changed depending on the verb used:
洛夫特斯和帕尔默（1974）展示了问题措辞如何改变记忆回忆。参与者观看车祸视频后被要求估计车速。估计的速度随着所用动词不同而变化：
Estimated Speed = f(verb intensity)
"Smashed" → 40.8 mph, "Collided" → 39.3 mph, "Bumped" → 38.1 mph, "Hit" → 34.0 mph, "Contacted" → 31.8 mph
This principle explains how post-event information can distort eyewitness testimony.
这一原理解释了事后信息如何扭曲目击者证词。
6. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget's theory proposes that children go through four universal stages of cognitive development. Although not a formula, the stage-age relationship is a key theoretical principle:
让·皮亚杰的理论提出儿童经历四个普遍的认知发展阶段。虽然不是公式，但阶段与年龄的关系是一个关键的理论原理：
| Stage | Age | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 0–2 years | Object permanence develops |
| Preoperational | 2–7 years | Symbolic thinking, egocentrism |
| Concrete Operational | 7–11 years | Conservation, logical thought about concrete objects |
| Formal Operational | 11+ years | Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking |
This is a foundational framework for understanding children's thinking.
这是理解儿童思维的框架基础。
7. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs – The Pyramid Principle | 马斯洛需求层次理论-金字塔原理
Abraham Maslow (1943) organized human needs into a five-level hierarchy, often shown as a pyramid. The rule is that lower-level needs must be mostly satisfied before higher-level needs motivate behaviour:
亚伯拉罕·马斯洛（1943年）将人类需求组织为五个层次，通常表示为金字塔。规则是，较低层次的需求必须大部分得到满足后，更高层次的需求才会激励行为：
Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-actualization
This is a motivational principle, not a mathematical formula, but it follows a sequential logic.
这是一种动机原理，不是数学公式，但遵循循序渐进的逻辑。
8. Asch's Conformity Rate | 阿希从众比率
Solomon Asch (1951) conducted line judgment experiments to measure conformity. When confederates unanimously gave wrong answers, participants conformed on about 37% of the critical trials. This can be stated as:
所罗门·阿希（1951）进行了线条判断实验来测量从众。当同谋者一致给出错误答案时，参与者在约37%的关键试验中从众。这可以表述为：
Conformity rate ≈ 37% (in unambiguous situation with group pressure)
About 75% of participants conformed at least once. This reveals the power of majority influence.
约75%的参与者至少从众过一次。这揭示了多数人影响的威力。
9. Mean, Median, Mode & Range – Data Formulas | 均值、中位数、众数和极差-数据公式
In psychology research, we analyse data using descriptive statistics. The key formulas are:
在心理学研究中，我们使用描述统计来分析数据。关键公式有：
Mean (average) = Σx / n
Median = middle value when data are ordered
Mode = most frequently occurring value
Range = maximum value − minimum value
These help summarise experimental results and compare conditions.
这些有助于总结实验结果并比较不同条件。
10. Ethical Principles Checklist | 伦理原则清单
All psychological studies must follow the British Psychological Society (BPS) ethical guidelines. Remember the key principles:
所有心理学研究必须遵循英国心理学会（BPS）的伦理准则。记住关键原则：
- Informed consent – participants must agree knowing the true purpose (unless deception is necessary).
- Deception – avoid misleading participants; if used, it must be justified.
- Debriefing – explain the study fully afterwards.
- Right to withdraw – participants can leave at any time.
- Confidentiality – data must be kept private.
- Protection from harm – no physical or psychological harm.
This checklist is essential for designing and evaluating research.
这份清单对设计和评价研究至关重要。
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