📚 Philosophy Key Terms Quick-Memorisation Guide | 哲学词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to your Year 8 Edexcel Philosophy revision guide. Memorising key terms is the first step to understanding big ideas. This article will help you grasp essential philosophical vocabulary through clear explanations and bilingual notes. Each term is unpacked with definitions, examples, and contrasts to build your confidence for class discussions and assessments.
欢迎阅读 Year 8 Edexcel 哲学速记指南。熟记关键术语是理解重大思想的第一步。本文通过清晰阐释与双语注释，助你掌握基础哲学词汇。每个术语均配有定义、示例和对比，帮助你在课堂讨论与测评中自信表达。
1. Philosophy: The Love of Wisdom | 哲学：爱智慧
The word 'philosophy' comes from the Greek words 'philo' (love) and 'sophia' (wisdom). It means the love of wisdom. Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and language. Philosophers use logic and critical thinking to examine beliefs rather than accepting them at face value.
‘哲学’一词源于希腊语‘philo’（爱）和‘sophia’（智慧），意为爱智慧。哲学研究存在、知识、价值、理性与语言等根本问题。哲学家运用逻辑与批判性思维来检视信念，而非全盘接受表面看法。
Philosophy encourages you to ask 'Why?' and to doubt assumptions. It helps you think clearly, argue effectively, and recognise weak reasoning. In your Edexcel course, you will encounter questions like 'What makes an action right?' and 'How do we know what is real?'
哲学鼓励你追问‘为什么’，质疑预设，帮助你清晰思考、有效论证，并识别推理的薄弱之处。在Edexcel课程中，你会遇到诸如‘什么使一个行为正确？’和‘我们如何知道什么是真实的？’等问题。
Philosophy is not about memorising facts but about learning how to think. The subject branches into areas such as epistemology, ethics, metaphysics, and logic. Understanding these branches will help you navigate your revision.
哲学不是记诵事实，而是学习如何思考。该学科分为认识论、伦理学、形而上学和逻辑等分支。了解这些分支能让你的复习更清晰。
2. Rationalism vs. Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism is the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge. Rationalists believe we can discover truths through logical thinking alone, without relying on sensory experience. Ren� Descartes is a famous rationalist who doubted his senses and concluded 'I think, therefore I am' using pure reason.
理性主义认为理性是知识的主要来源。理性主义者相信我们仅凭逻辑思维就能发现真理，而不依赖感官经验。勒内·笛卡尔是著名的理性主义者，他怀疑感官，并运用纯粹理性得出‘我思故我在’。
Empiricism argues that knowledge comes from sensory experience. Empiricists claim that we are born as blank slates ('tabula rasa') and learn by observing the world. John Locke is a key empiricist who emphasised that all ideas originate from sensation and reflection.
经验主义主张知识来源于感官经验。经验主义者声称我们生来是一块白板，通过观察世界来学习。约翰·洛克是重要的经验主义者，他强调所有观念都来源于感觉与反省。
In your studies, you will apply these perspectives to debates about innate ideas and how we acquire concepts. For example, do we have an inbuilt sense of fairness, or do we learn it from experience? This question divides rationalists and empiricists.
在学习中，你会运用这些视角来探讨天赋观念以及我们如何获得概念等争论。例如，我们是否天生具有公平感，还是从经验中习得？这一问题使理性主义者与经验主义者分道扬镳。
3. Metaphysics: What is Real? | 形而上学：何谓真实？
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of reality. It asks questions like: What exists? What is the nature of time and space? Do we have free will? The term comes from Aristotle's works placed 'after the Physics'.
形而上学是探讨实在之本质的哲学分支。它追问何物存在、时间与空间的性质、我们是否拥有自由意志等问题。该术语源自亚里士多德编排在《物理学》之后的著作。
Key metaphysical debates include materialism versus idealism. Materialism holds that only physical matter exists, while idealism claims that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual. Another debate concerns whether abstract objects like numbers exist independently of our minds.
形而上学的关键争论包括唯物主义与唯心主义。唯物主义主张只有物理质料存在，而唯心主义认为实在是根本精神性的。另一争论涉及数字这类抽象对象是否独立于我们的心灵而存在。
Identity and change are also central metaphysical topics. The Ship of Theseus puzzle asks: if every part of a ship is replaced, is it still the same ship? Such problems teach you to analyse what makes something the thing that it is.
同一性与变化也是形而上学的核心议题。忒修斯之船难题提问：若一艘船的每个部件都被替换，它还是同一艘船吗？这类问题训练你分析何者使某物成为它自身。
4. Epistemology: How Do We Know? | 认识论：我们如何知道？
Epistemology is the theory of knowledge. It investigates what knowledge is, how we acquire it, and how we can justify our beliefs. The classic definition of knowledge is justified true belief: you know something if you believe it, it is true, and you have good reasons for believing it.
认识论是知识理论，研究知识是什么、如何获取以及如何证成信念。知识的经典定义是得到辩护的真信念：若你相信某命题，该命题为真，且你有充分理由相信它，你便知道它。
Philosophers have challenged this definition with Gettier cases, where someone has a justified true belief that seems to be true only by luck. These thought experiments show that knowledge requires more than just justification, truth, and belief.
哲学家以盖梯尔案例挑战这一定义，其中某人持有得到辩护的真信念，但其为真似乎仅凭运气。这些思想实验表明，知识所需的不止于辩护、真理与信念。
Scepticism challenges whether we can have any certain knowledge at all. Descartes' evil demon scenario imagines a powerful deceiver who makes us believe a false reality. Addressing scepticism forces you to examine the foundations of your own knowledge.
怀疑论挑战我们是否能拥有任何确定的知识。笛卡尔的恶魔情境设想一个强大的欺骗者使我们对虚假实在信以为真。回应怀疑论迫使你审视自身知识的基础。
5. Ethics: Right and Wrong | 伦理学：对与错
Ethics, also called moral philosophy, examines concepts of right and wrong, good and bad. It asks: How should we live? What makes an action morally right? In Edexcel Philosophy, you will study different normative theories that offer distinct answers.
伦理学考察对错善恶观念，追问我们应如何生活、什么使行为道德上正确。在Edexcel哲学课程中，你会学习不同的规范理论，它们提供各异的答案。
Utilitarianism holds that the right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill developed this consequentialist theory. You measure actions by their outcomes in terms of pleasure and pain.
功利主义主张，正确行为是能为最大多数人带来最大幸福的行为。杰里米·边沁和约翰·斯图尔特·密尔发展了这种后果论理论。你以快乐和痛苦方面的结果来衡量行为。
Deontology argues that some actions are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of consequences. Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative is a key deontological principle. It requires you to act only according to rules that could become universal laws, and to treat people as ends, never merely as means.
义务论认为某些行为本身就是对或错的，不论后果。康德的定言命令是义务论核心原则。它要求只按照能成为普遍法则的准则行动，并把人当作目的，而绝不仅仅当作手段。
Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than rules or consequences. Aristotle argued that we should cultivate virtues like courage, honesty, and compassion to achieve eudaimonia (flourishing). A virtuous person knows how to find the golden mean between extremes.
美德伦理关注道德行为者的品格而非规则或后果。亚里士多德主张我们应当培养勇敢、诚实和同情等美德以实现幸福。有德者懂得如何在极端之间寻求中道。
6. Logic: The Structure of Arguments | 逻辑：论证的结构
Logic studies the principles of correct reasoning. It helps you distinguish between good arguments and bad arguments. An argument in philosophy is a set of statements where some statements (premises) are intended to support another statement (conclusion).
逻辑研究正确推理原则，帮助你区分好论证与坏论证。哲学中的论证是一组陈述，其中一些陈述（前提）旨在支持另一陈述（结论）。
A valid argument is one where if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity concerns the logical structure, not the actual truth. For example: All dogs are mammals; all mammals are animals; therefore, all dogs are animals. This is valid.
有效论证是指如果前提为真则结论必然为真的论证。有效性关乎逻辑结构，而非实际真值。例如：所有狗是哺乳动物；所有哺乳动物是动物；所以所有狗是动物。这是有效的。
A sound argument is valid and has true premises. If an argument is sound, its conclusion must be true. Recognising soundness helps you evaluate whether an argument gives you a good reason to accept its conclusion.
可靠论证是有效且前提真实的论证。如果一个论证是可靠的，其结论必为真。识别可靠性有助于你评估该论证是否提供了接受结论的充分理由。
Fallacies are common mistakes in reasoning. Examples include ad hominem (attacking the person instead of the argument) and false dilemma (presenting only two options when more exist). Learning to spot fallacies sharpens your critical thinking skills.
谬误是推理中的常见错误。例子包括人身攻击（攻击对方而非论证）和虚假二难（仅提供两个选项而实则更多）。学会识别谬误能磨砺你的批判性思维技能。
7. Deduction and Induction | 演绎与归纳
Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions. If the premises are true, the conclusion is guaranteed. A classic example: All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal. Deduction aims for certainty.
演绎推理从一般原则推出特定结论。若前提为真，结论必然真。经典示例：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。演绎旨在获得确定性。
Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to general conclusions. It provides probable but not certain support. Example: The sun has risen every day in recorded history; therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow. Induction underpins scientific reasoning and everyday learning.
归纳推理从特定观察得出一般结论，提供或然而非必然的支持。例如：太阳有记载以来每天都升起，因此明天太阳也会升起。归纳是科学推理与日常学习的基础。
It is crucial to distinguish these two forms of argument in your Edexcel assessments. Deductive arguments are evaluated for validity and soundness, while inductive arguments are judged by strength and cogency. A strong inductive argument makes its conclusion highly probable, but it never guarantees it.
在Edexcel测评中区分这两种论证形式至关重要。演绎论证以有效性与可靠性评价，归纳论证则以强度与说服力评判。一个强的归纳论证使其结论极有可能，但绝不保证其为真。
8. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free will is the ability to choose your actions without being forced. It is often linked to moral responsibility. If we cannot choose freely, can we be blamed or praised for what we do? Determinism is the view that every event is caused by previous events and laws of nature, leaving no room for free choice.
自由意志是不受强制而选择行为的能力。它常与道德责任相关。若无法自由选择，我们还能为自己的所作所为被责备或赞扬吗？决定论认为每个事件都由先前事件与自然法则决定，没有自由选择的空间。
Hard determinists argue that since determinism is true, free will is an illusion. Libertarians (in the philosophical sense) maintain that we do have free will and that determinism is false. Compatibilism offers a middle way: free will and determinism can coexist if we define free will appropriately.
强硬决定论者主张既然决定论为真，自由意志便是幻觉。自由意志论者（哲学意义上）坚持我们确实拥有自由意志，且决定论为假。相容论提供了中间道路：若恰当定义自由意志，它便能与决定论共存。
Compatibilists often define free will as acting according to one's own desires and intentions without external coercion. Even if the world is determined, as long as you act from your own motives, you are free. This debate links to ethics and our legal system.
相容论者常将自由意志定义为根据自身欲望与意图行动且不受外部强制。即便世界是决定的，只要你出于自身动机行动，你就是自由的。这一争论与伦理学及法律体系密切相关。
9. The Mind-Body Problem | 心灵与身体问题
The mind-body problem asks how mental states (thoughts, feelings, sensations) relate to physical states (brain processes). Dualism claims that the mind and body are distinct substances. Cartesian dualism, proposed by Descartes, posits an immaterial soul that interacts with the mechanical body.
心身问题探讨心理状态（思想、感受、感觉）与物理状态（大脑过程）的关系。二元论声称心灵与身体是两种不同实体。笛卡尔提出的笛卡尔二元论设想非物质灵魂与机械的身体互动。
One challenge for dualism is the interaction problem: how can a non-physical mind cause physical changes? Physicalism (or materialism) holds that mental states are entirely physical brain states. According to physicalism, there is no separate spiritual substance; consciousness arises from neural activity.
二元论面临的一个挑战是互动难题：非物质心灵如何引起物理变化？物理主义（唯物主义）主张心理状态完全是物理的大脑状态。根据物理主义，不存在独立的精神实体；意识来自神经活动。
Thought experiments like 'philosophical zombies' (beings physically identical to humans but without conscious experience) test our intuitions. If zombies are conceivable, perhaps consciousness is non-physical. This area sharpens your ability to analyse concepts and imagine possibilities.
诸如‘哲学僵尸’（与人物理上完全相同但没有意识经验的生物）的思想实验检验我们的直觉。若可设想僵尸，意识或许是非物理的。这一领域能磨练你分析概念与设想可能性的能力。
10. Socratic Method: Question Everything | 苏格拉底方法：质问一切
Named after the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, the Socratic method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue. It involves asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to expose contradictions in a person's beliefs. Instead of lecturing, Socrates guided his conversation partners to discover truths for themselves.
以古希腊哲学家苏格拉底命名，苏格拉底方法是一种合作式辩证对话。通过提问与回答来激发批判性思维，并暴露个人信念中的矛盾。苏格拉底不单向灌输，而是引导对话者自行发现真理。
The method typically begins with a definition or claim, such as 'Justice is telling the truth and paying one's debts.' Socrates would then present counterexamples, forcing the other person to refine their view. This process continues until a more robust understanding is reached or the participants realise their ignorance.
该方法通常以定义或主张开始，例如‘正义是说真话和偿还债务’。苏格拉底随后提出反例，迫使对方修正其观点。这一过程持续到达成更深刻的理解，或参与者意识到自身的无知。
In your philosophy lessons, you will use the Socratic method to explore concepts like fairness, truth, and existence. It teaches you to listen carefully, ask thoughtful questions, and remain open to changing your mind. This habit of inquiry is at the heart of philosophical thinking.
在哲学课上，你将使用苏格拉底方法来探索公平、真理和存在等概念。它教会你仔细倾听、提出深思熟虑的问题，并保持开放心态。这种探究习惯是哲学思维的核心。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
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