📚 Year 7 CAIE English: Quick Reference Handbook of Rules & Formulas | Year 7 CAIE 英语：公式定理速查手册
This handbook gathers the essential writing and grammar 'formulas' every Year 7 student needs to ace the CAIE English curriculum. Think of each rule as a reliable tool you can reach for when building sentences, paragraphs and essays.
本手册汇集了每一位 Year 7 学生攻克 CAIE 英语课程所必需的核心写作与语法“公式”。你可以将每一条规则视为构建句子、段落和文章时可以随时取用的可靠工具。
1. Common Punctuation Rules | 常见标点规则
A full stop (.) ends a complete statement or command. Never use a comma where a full stop is needed.
句号 (.) 用于结束一个完整的陈述句或祈使句。切勿在需要句号的地方误用逗号。
A comma (,) separates items in a list, marks a pause after an introductory phrase, or sets off extra information. In a list of three or more items, place a comma before 'and' (the Oxford comma) to avoid confusion.
逗号 (,) 用于分隔列举项、标示引导性短语后的停顿，或引出附加信息。在列举三个或以上项目时，在 'and' 前加逗号（牛津逗号）以避免混淆。
An apostrophe (') shows possession (Mia's book) or replaces missing letters in contractions (do not → don't). Never use an apostrophe to form a plain plural.
撇号 (') 表示所有格（Mia's book）或在缩约形式中代替省略的字母（do not → don't）。切勿用撇号构成普通的复数形式。
Speech marks ('...' or "...") enclose direct speech. The punctuation that belongs to the spoken words stays inside the speech marks.
引号 ('...' 或 "...") 用于引述直接引语。属于引语的标点应放在引号之内。
2. Sentence Types and Structures | 句子类型与结构
A simple sentence contains one independent clause: a subject and a verb that express a complete thought. Example: The sun set behind the hills.
简单句含有一个独立分句：一个主语和一个谓语，表达完整的思想。例如：The sun set behind the hills.
A compound sentence joins two simple sentences with a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Example: I wanted to play outside, but it started to rain.
并列句用并列连词（for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so）连接两个简单句。例如：I wanted to play outside, but it started to rain.
A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction (because, although, when, if). Example: Although she was tired, she finished her homework.
复合句含有一个独立分句和至少一个由从属连词（because, although, when, if）引导的从属分句。例如：Although she was tired, she finished her homework.
Vary your sentence starts. Do not begin every sentence with 'The' or 'I'. Use adverbs, prepositional phrases or subordinating clauses to add rhythm.
变换句子开头。不要每个句子都以 'The' 或 'I' 开头。使用副词、介词短语或从属分句增加节奏感。
3. Parts of Speech at a Glance | 词性速览
Noun: A word that names a person (teacher), place (library), thing (mountain) or idea (bravery).
名词：命名人（teacher）、地点（library）、事物（mountain）或概念（bravery）的词。
Verb: A word that expresses an action (run, think) or a state of being (am, is, are). Every complete sentence must have a verb.
动词：表示动作（run, think）或存在状态（am, is, are）的词。每个完整的句子必须包含动词。
Adjective: A word that describes a noun or pronoun, usually answering 'What kind?', 'How many?' or 'Which one?'.
形容词：修饰名词或代词的词，通常回答“什么样的？”、“多少？”或“哪一个？”。
Adverb: A word that modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb, often ending in '-ly'. It tells how, when, where or to what extent.
副词：修饰动词、形容词或其他副词的词，常以 '-ly' 结尾。它说明方式、时间、地点或程度。
Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun (he, she, it, they, this). Pronouns must agree with their antecedent in number and gender.
代词：代替名词的词（he, she, it, they, this）。代词必须与其先行词在数和性上保持一致。
Preposition: A word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words, indicating direction, place, time or manner (in, on, under, before).
介词：表示名词（或代词）与其他词之间关系的词，指示方向、位置、时间或方式（in, on, under, before）。
Conjunction: A joining word. Coordinating conjunctions link equal parts; subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses.
连词：起连接作用的词。并列连词连接对等的成分；从属连词引导从属分句。
4. Verb Tenses: A Quick Guide | 动词时态快速指南
Tense Consistency is the golden rule: do not shift tenses inside a paragraph unless time changes.
时态一致是黄金法则：除非时间发生改变，否则不要在段落内随意转换时态。
Simple Present: base form or base form + -s (I play / She plays). Used for habits, facts and timeless truths. Signal words: always, usually, every day.
一般现在时：动词原形或动词原形 + -s（I play / She plays）。用于习惯、事实和永恒的真理。标志词：always, usually, every day。
Simple Past: base form + -ed (for regular verbs); irregular forms must be memorised. Used for completed actions with a definite time reference. Signal words: yesterday, last week, in 2020.
一般过去时：动词原形 + -ed（规则动词）；不规则形式须牢记。用于有确定时间参照的已完成动作。标志词：yesterday, last week, in 2020。
Simple Future: will + base form or be going to + base form. 'Will' is often used for spontaneous decisions and promises; 'going to' for plans and predictions based on evidence.
一般将来时：will + 动词原形 或 be going to + 动词原形。'Will' 常用于即时的决定和承诺；'going to' 用于计划及有证据的预测。
Present Continuous: am/is/are + verb-ing. Used for actions happening now or arranged future plans. Example: I am writing an article now.
现在进行时：am/is/are + 动词-ing。用于此刻正在进行的动作或已安排好的未来计划。例句：I am writing an article now.
Past Continuous: was/were + verb-ing. Used to describe an action in progress at a specific past moment, often interrupted by a simple past action.
过去进行时：was/were + 动词-ing。用于描述过去某一特定时刻正在进行、常被一般过去时动作打断的动作。
5. Subject-Verb Agreement | 主谓一致
A singular subject takes a singular verb; a plural subject takes a plural verb. The snake slithers. / The snakes slither.
单数主语接单数动词；复数主语接复数动词。The snake slithers. / The snakes slither.
Don't be tricked by words between the subject and the verb. The leader of the teams is ready. (Leader is singular, so the verb is 'is'.)
不要被主语和动词之间的词语迷惑。The leader of the teams is ready.（主语 leader 是单数，所以动词用 'is'。）
Compound subjects joined by 'and' usually take a plural verb: Sam and Pat are friends. However, if the parts refer to a single idea, it may be singular: Bread and butter is my breakfast.
由 'and' 连接的并列主语通常接复数动词：Sam and Pat are friends。然而，如果各部分指代单一概念，则可能为单数：Bread and butter is my breakfast。
With 'either...or' and 'neither...nor', the verb agrees with the subject nearest to it. Neither the teacher nor the students were late.
使用 'either...or' 和 'neither...nor' 时，动词与离它最近的主语保持一致。Neither the teacher nor the students were late.
Indefinite pronouns like everybody, any one, and each are singular and take singular verbs. Everybody has a dream.
不定代词如 everybody, any one 和 each 是单数，接单数动词。Everybody has a dream.
6. Figurative Language Toolkit | 修辞手法工具箱
Simile: a direct comparison using 'like' or 'as'. Her smile was as bright as the sun.
明喻：使用 'like' 或 'as' 的直接比较。Her smile was as bright as the sun.
Metaphor: a comparison that says one thing is another. The classroom was a zoo.
暗喻：说一事物是另一事物的比较。The classroom was a zoo.
Personification: giving human qualities to non-human things. The wind whispered through the trees.
拟人：将人类的特质赋予非人类的事物。The wind whispered through the trees.
Alliteration: the repetition of initial consonant sounds in nearby words. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
头韵：邻近单词开头辅音的重复。Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
Onomatopoeia: words that imitate sounds. Buzz, hiss, bang, splash.
拟声词：模仿声音的词语。Buzz, hiss, bang, splash.
Hyperbole: extreme exaggeration for effect. I've told you a million times.
夸张：为达到效果而极度夸大。I've told you a million times.
7. Paragraph Writing Formula (PEEL) | 段落写作公式 (PEEL)
P – Point: Start with a clear topic sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph.
P – 观点：以一个清晰的主题句开头，点明段落的主要意思。
E – Evidence: Provide a quotation, example or fact that supports your point. Use phrases like 'For instance...', 'The text states...'
E – 证据：提供支持观点的引文、例子或事实。使用 'For instance...'、'The text states...' 等短语。
E – Explanation: Explain how your evidence backs up the point. This is where you analyse and show understanding.
E – 解释：解释你的证据如何支撑观点。这是进行分析和展示理解的部分。
L – Link: End by linking back to the main argument or forward to the next paragraph. Use connectives like 'Therefore...', 'This suggests that...'
L – 衔接：结尾时回扣主论点或过渡到下一段。使用 'Therefore...'、'This suggests that...' 等连接词。
A well-structured paragraph is like a mini-essay. Always check that each element of PEEL is present before moving on.
一个结构清晰的段落就像一篇微型文章。在继续之前，务必检查 PEEL 的每个要素是否齐全。
8. Homophones and Common Spelling Errors | 同音异义词与常见拼写错误
Their (belongs to them) / There (a place or existence) / They're (they are). They're going to their house over there.
Their（他们的）/ There（那里/存在）/ They're（他们是）。They're going to their house over there.
Your (belongs to you) / You're (you are). You're the owner of your destiny.
Your（你的）/ You're（你是）。You're the owner of your destiny.
Its (belongs to it) / It's (it is or it has). It's time the cat ate its dinner.
Its（它的）/ It's（它是或它有）。It's time the cat ate its dinner.
To (direction or infinitive) / Too (also, excessively) / Two (the number). I ate too much, so I have to walk to the park with two friends.
To（方向或不定式）/ Too（也，过于）/ Two（数字二）。I ate too much, so I have to walk to the park with two friends.
Watch out for silent letters: knife, write, hour, listen. Always sound the word out in your head and check a dictionary if uncertain.
注意不发音字母：knife, write, hour, listen。总是在脑海中默读单词，如果不确定便查词典。
9. Reading Comprehension Strategies | 阅读理解策略
Skimming: rapidly reading to get the gist. Focus on titles, headings, first and last sentences of paragraphs. Ask: What is this text mostly about?
略读：快速阅读以获取大意。关注标题、小标题、段落的首尾句。自问：这篇文章主要讲什么？
Scanning: searching for specific information such as a date, name or keyword. Move your eyes quickly and do not read every word.
寻读：搜索具体信息，如日期、姓名或关键词。快速移动视线，无需逐词阅读。
Inference: reading between the lines. Combine clues from the text with your own knowledge to figure out what is not directly stated.
推断：体会弦外之音。结合文本线索与自身知识，弄清未直接说明的内容。
Vocabulary in context: if you meet an unfamiliar word, look at the words and sentences around it. Often the context provides a definition, example or contrast.
语境词汇：遇到生词时，观察其周围的词句。语境常能提供定义、示例或对比。
Summarising: after reading, condense the main ideas into one or two sentences in your own words. This helps you check your understanding.
归纳：阅读之后，用自己的话把主要意思浓缩成一两句话。这有助于检验你的理解。
When answering comprehension questions, always restate part of the question in your answer and support your points with evidence from the passage.
回答阅读理解题时，始终在答案中复述部分问题，并以文中的证据支撑你的观点。
10. Sentence Openers and Connectives | 句子开头与连接词
Adding ideas: Furthermore, Moreover, In addition, Also. Use these to build on a point without repeating 'and'.
递进：Furthermore, Moreover, In addition, Also。使用这些词来增添论点，避免重复 'and'。
Showing contrast: However, On the other hand, Nevertheless, Although. These signal a shift or opposing view.
转折：However, On the other hand, Nevertheless, Although。这些词表示转折或对立的观点。
Cause and effect: As a result, Consequently, Therefore, Because of. Link actions to their outcomes.
因果：As a result, Consequently, Therefore, Because of。将行为与其结果联系起来。
Sequencing: First, Then, After that, Finally. Use these to order events or instructions clearly.
顺序：First, Then, After that, Finally。用这些词清晰地排列事件或步骤。
-ly sentence starters: Quickly, the flames spread. Cautiously, she opened the door. This is a powerful way to vary sentence rhythm.
-ly 开头：Quickly, the flames spread. Cautiously, she opened the door. 这是变换句子节奏的有力方式。
-ing clause starters: Hoping for a miracle, the crowd waited. Running late, I skipped breakfast. This fronted adverbial adds detail about the action.
-ing 分句开头：Hoping for a miracle, the crowd waited. Running late, I skipped breakfast。这种前位状语为动作增添细节。
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