📚 Legal Formulas & Principles Quick Reference | 法律公式与原则速查手册
Welcome to your Year 7 Cambridge Law quick reference handbook. Here, legal concepts are presented as simple 'formulas' to help you understand how rules and principles fit together. Each formula breaks down an area of law into its basic building blocks. Paired with clear explanations in English and Chinese, this guide will strengthen your foundation in legal studies.
欢迎使用Year 7剑桥法律速查手册。在这里，法律概念以简单的“公式”呈现，帮助你理解规则和原则是如何组合在一起的。每个公式将某一法律领域分解为基本构成要素。配合清晰的中英解释，本指南将夯实你的法律学习基础。
1. The Rule of Law Formula | 法治公式
The Rule of Law is the backbone of any democratic society. It means that everyone – including the government – must follow the law, and that laws should be fair, clear, and applied equally. When any part of this formula is missing, individual freedoms can be threatened.
法治是任何民主社会的支柱。它意味着每一个人——包括政府——都必须遵守法律，而且法律应当公平、明确且平等适用。当公式中任何一个要素缺失时，个人自由就可能受到威胁。
of Law = Government under Law + Protection of Fundamental Rights + Fair and Public Trials
Government under Law: No one is above the law; governments must act according to established legal rules, not arbitrarily.
法律下的政府：没有人可以凌驾于法律之上；政府必须依照既定的法律规则行事，不能任意而为。
Protection of Fundamental Rights: Basic freedoms such as speech, assembly, and a fair hearing are safeguarded by law.
保护基本权利：言论、集会、获得公正聆讯等基本自由受到法律保护。
Fair and Public Trials: Courts must be independent and accessible, delivering justice openly so that the process can be scrutinised.
公正与公开审判：法院必须独立且便于民众利用，公开进行审判，使其过程能够受到监督。
2. The Crime Formula | 犯罪公式
In criminal law, a person is generally only guilty if two key elements are present. This formula helps you remember that both a guilty action and a guilty mind are required, unless a valid defence applies.
在刑法中，通常只有同时具备两个关键要素时，才能认定一个人有罪。这个公式帮助你记住，除非有有效抗辩，否则必须同时存在犯罪行为和犯罪意图。
Crime = Actus Reus (Guilty Act) + Mens Rea (Guilty Mind) – Valid Defence
Actus Reus: This is the physical element of the crime. It can be an act (e.g., hitting someone) or sometimes an omission (failing to act when there is a duty to do so).
犯罪行为：这是犯罪的物理要素。它可以是一种积极行为（例如打人），有时也可以是疏忽（在有义务作为时却没有行动）。
Mens Rea: This refers to the mental element. It includes states of mind like intention, recklessness, or in some crimes, negligence. A child of Year 7 age can understand 'intention' as meaning you meant to do it.
犯罪意图：这是指主观心理要素。它包括故意、轻率等心理状态，在某些犯罪中还包括过失。七年级的学生可以将“故意”理解为你是有意这样做的。
Valid Defence: Even if both elements exist, a person might be not guilty if they have a defence, such as self-defence or duress, which the law recognises.
有效抗辩：即使两个要素都存在，如果被告人具有法律认可的抗辩理由（如正当防卫或被迫行为），也可能被判无罪。
3. The Tort of Negligence Formula | 过失侵权公式
Negligence is an important part of civil law (tort). It deals with situations where someone carelessly causes harm to another. The formula breaks down what you need to prove for a successful claim.
过失是民法（侵权法）的重要组成部分。它处理某人因疏忽而给他人造成伤害的情况。这个公式分解了你成功索赔需要证明的事项。
Negligence = Duty of Care + Breach of Duty + Causation + Damage
Duty of Care: The defendant must have owed a legal duty to the claimant. For example, drivers owe a duty to other road users. The famous 'neighbour principle' says you must take reasonable care to avoid acts which could foreseeably injure your neighbour.
注意义务：被告必须对原告负有法律上的注意义务。例如，驾驶员对其他道路使用者负有义务。著名的“邻人原则”说，你必须采取合理注意，避免做出可预见会伤害你邻人的行为。
Breach of Duty: The defendant fell below the standard of care expected in the situation. This is judged by what a reasonable person would have done.
违反义务：被告未达到当时情况下应有的注意标准。这通常以一个“理性人”会怎么做来判断。
Causation: The breach must have caused the claimant's injury, both in fact and in law. The 'but for' test asks: but for the defendant's breach, would the damage have occurred?
因果关系：违反义务的行为必须事实上和法律上都造成了原告的损害。“若非”测试问的是：若非被告的违反义务行为，损害会发生吗？
Damage: The claimant must have suffered actual harm that the law can compensate, such as physical injury or loss of property.
损害：原告必须遭受了法律可以补偿的实际伤害，比如人身伤害或财产损失。
4. The Contract Formula | 合同公式
A legally binding contract does not need to be written down every time, but it always requires certain building blocks. Remembering this formula helps you spot when a deal becomes a contract.
一份具有法律约束力的合同不一定总是要写下来，但它始终需要特定的构成要素。记住这个公式有助于你判断什么时候一项交易成为了合同。
Contract = Offer + Acceptance + Consideration + Intention to Create Legal Relations
Offer: A clear proposal made by one party (the offeror) to another, showing willingness to be bound by terms if accepted. An advertisement is usually just an invitation to treat, not an offer.
要约：一方（要约人）向另一方发出的明确提议，表明如果对方接受，自己愿意受条款约束。广告通常只是要约邀请，而非要约。
Acceptance: The other party (the offeree) must unconditionally agree to the exact terms of the offer. Any change is a counter-offer, not acceptance.
承诺：另一方（受要约人）必须无条件地同意要约的全部条款。任何修改都构成反要约，而不是承诺。
Consideration: Something of value must be given by each side. It can be money, goods, a service, or even a promise to do or not do something. This makes the contract a bargain.
对价：每一方都必须给出有价值的东西。它可以是金钱、物品、服务，甚至是做某事或不做某事的承诺。这使得合同成为一项交易。
Intention to Create Legal Relations: Both parties must intend their agreement to be legally enforceable. In social or domestic arrangements there is a presumption against such intention, while in business deals it is strongly presumed.
建立法律关系的意图：双方必须有意让他们的协议在法律上可以强制执行。在社会或家庭安排中，通常推定没有此意图，而在商业交易中则强烈推定有此意图。
5. Sources of Law Formula | 法律渊源公式
Laws do not appear from nowhere. In the English legal system, they come mainly from two sources. This formula helps you distinguish between laws made by Parliament and laws developed by judges.
法律不会凭空出现。在英格兰法律体系中，法律主要来自两个渊源。这个公式帮助你区分由议会制定的法律和由法官发展出来的法律。
Law = Statute Law (Acts of Parliament) + Common Law (Case Law)
Statute Law: These are laws created and passed by Parliament. They are written down in Acts, also called legislation. Statute law can cover any topic and is the supreme source of law; it can override common law.
成文法：这些是由议会制定和通过的法律。它们被写进法令中，也称为立法。成文法可以涵盖任何主题，并且是最高法律渊源；它可以推翻普通法。
Common Law: This is law made by judges in court when they decide cases. The decisions set precedents that lower courts must follow. Much of contract law and tort law began as common law.
普通法：这是法官在法庭上裁决案件时制定的法律。这些判决形成判例，下级法院必须遵循。合同法与侵权法的很大一部分起源于普通法。
6. Judicial Review Formula | 司法复核公式
Judicial review is how the courts check the lawfulness of decisions made by public bodies, such as government ministers or local councils. It is about the way a decision is made, not whether it was the right decision.
司法复核是法院审查公共机构（例如政府部长或地方议会）决策合法性的方式。它关注的是决策作出的方式，而非决策本身是否正确。
Judicial Review = Illegality + Irrationality + Procedural Impropriety
Illegality: The decision-maker must understand and correctly apply the law that gives them power. If they act beyond their powers (ultra vires) or take into account irrelevant considerations, their decision is illegal.
违法性：决策者必须理解并正确适用赋予其权力的法律。如果越权行事或考虑了不相关因素，该决定即为违法。
Irrationality (Wednesbury Unreasonableness): A decision is so unreasonable that no reasonable authority could ever have come to it. It must be a decision that defies logic – not merely a decision some people disagree with.
不合理性（Wednesbury不合理原则）：决定如此不合理，以至于任何理性的当局都不可能作出。它必须是一个违背逻辑的决定，而不仅仅是某些人不同意的决定。
Procedural Impropriety: The correct procedures were not followed. This includes failing to give someone a fair hearing or not allowing them to put their case (natural justice).
程序不当：没有遵循正确的程序。这包括未能给予某人公正的聆讯，或没有给其陈述主张的机会（自然公正）。
7. Human Rights Formula | 人权公式
Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world. They are not granted by any state and cannot be taken away lightly. This formula captures their core characteristics.
人权是世界上每个人所应享有的基本权利和自由。它们并非由国家授予，也不能被轻易剥夺。这个公式概括了它们的核心特征。
Human Rights = Universality + Inalienability + Indivisibility + Dignity
Universality: Human rights apply to all people, everywhere, regardless of their nationality, sex, race, religion, or any other status. They are universal.
普遍性：人权适用于所有地方的所有人，不论其国籍、性别、种族、宗教或任何其他身份。它们具有普遍性。
Inalienability: Human rights cannot be taken away, except in very specific circumstances and with due process. For example, the right to liberty may be restricted after a fair trial, but it is not simply lost.
不可剥夺性：人权不能被剥夺，除非在非常特殊的情况下并经过正当程序。例如，自由权可以在公正审判后被限制，但不会轻易丧失。
Indivisibility: All rights are equally important and cannot be fully enjoyed without each other. Civil and political rights are linked to economic and social rights – you cannot have one set without the other.
不可分割性：所有权利同等重要，不能在没有其他权利的情况下完全享有。公民和政治权利与经济、社会权利相关联——你不可能只拥有一套权利而缺失另一套。
Dignity: At the heart of human rights is respect for human dignity. Every right aims to protect the inherent worth of each person.
尊严：人权的核心是尊重人的尊严。每一项权利都旨在保护每个人与生俱来的价值。
8. Liability Formula | 法律责任公式
In both criminal and civil law, courts establish liability. This general formula shows the essential components that must be proven before someone is held responsible, minus any valid defence they may raise.
在刑法和民法中，法院都要确定法律责任。这个通用公式展示了在某人被追究责任之前必须被证明的基本组成部分，再减去他们可能提出的任何有效抗辩。
Liability = Act (or Omission) + Causation + Recognised Harm – Available Defences
Act or Omission: There must be conduct – either doing something prohibited, or failing to do something required by law (such as providing a safe environment).
作为或不作为：必须存在行为——要么做了被禁止的事，要么没做法律要求的事（例如提供安全的环境）。
Causation: It must be proved that the defendant's conduct directly caused the harm. Factual causation uses the 'but for' test, and legal causation requires the harm to be a substantial and operative cause.
因果关系：必须证明被告的行为直接导致了损害。事实因果关系采用“若非”测试，而法律因果关系要求损害是实质性且有效的原因。
Recognised Harm: The law must recognise the type of loss suffered – such as personal injury, psychiatric harm (in recognised cases), or property damage. Mere upset or hurt feelings are not usually enough.
法律承认的损害：法律必须承认所遭受的损失类型——例如人身伤害、精神损害（在特定认可情况下）或财产损坏。单纯的难过或感情受伤通常是不够的。
Available Defences: The defendant may avoid liability by proving a defence, for instance consent (in tort) or automatism (in crime).
可用的抗辩：被告可以通过证明某个抗辩成立而免于承担责任，例如同意（在侵权法中）或者无意识行为（在刑法中）。
9. How a Bill Becomes Law Formula | 法案立法公式
A Bill is a proposal for a new law, or a change to an existing one. Its journey through Parliament is elegant when seen as a formula. This formula traces the main stages in the House of Commons, though a similar process occurs in either House.
法案是一项新法律或修改现行法律的提案。若以公式来看，它在议会的历程十分优雅。这个公式追溯了下议院的主要阶段，实际上两院程序类似。
cond Reading + Committee Stage + Report Stage + Third Reading + Other House + Royal Assent
First Reading: The Bill is introduced formally. Its title is read out and an order is made for it to be printed. There is no debate at this stage.
一读：法案被正式提出。宣读其名称并下令印发。此阶段不进行辩论。
Second Reading: The main principles and purposes of the Bill are debated by MPs. A vote is taken, and if approved, the Bill moves to the next stage.
二读：议员们就法案的主要原则和目的进行辩论。进行表决，若通过，法案进入下一阶段。
Committee Stage: A committee examines the Bill in detail, word for word, and may suggest amendments. Every clause is discussed.
委员会阶段：一个委员会逐字逐句详细审查法案，并可提出修正案。每个条款都会被讨论。
Report Stage: The committee reports back to the whole House, and further amendments can be debated and voted on.
报告阶段：委员会向全院报告，进一步的修正案可被辩论和表决。
Third Reading: The final version of the Bill is debated, and a final vote decides whether it proceeds. No major amendments can be made now.
三读：对法案的最终版本进行辩论，最终投票决定其是否继续推进。此时不能再提出重大修正。
Other House: The Bill goes through a similar set of stages in the other House (Lords or Commons). Any disagreements are resolved through 'ping-pong' before both Houses agree on a final text.
另一院：法案在另一院（上院或下院）经历类似阶段。任何分歧通过“反复审议”（乒乓程序）解决，直至两院达成一致文本。
Royal Assent: The monarch formally agrees to the Bill, turning it into an Act of Parliament and law of the land. This is now a ceremonial step.
御准：君主正式同意该法案，使之成为议会法令和全国法律。此步骤现已为仪式性程序。
10. Court Hierarchy Formula | 法院等级公式
Courts in England and Wales are arranged in a clear structure. Understanding this hierarchy helps you see how decisions flow and how appeals work. The formula uses arrows instead of additions because it shows the path a case can take.
英格兰和威尔士的法院有清晰的层级结构。理解这一等级有助于你了解判决如何传递以及上诉如何运作。公式中使用箭头而非加号，因为它显示了一个案件可能的路径。
Court Hierarchy (Criminal) = Magistrates' Court → Crown Court → Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) → Supreme Court
Magistrates' Court: The lowest criminal court, dealing with summary offences (minor crimes). It also handles preliminary hearings for more serious indictable offences, which are sent to the Crown Court. There is no jury here; cases are heard by magistrates or a district judge.
治安法院：最低级别的刑事法院，处理简易罪行（轻微犯罪）。它还处理较严重可诉罪行的初步聆讯，并将这些案件移送到刑事法院。这里没有陪审团；案件由治安法官或地区法官审理。
Crown Court: This court hears indictable offences (serious crimes like robbery and murder) and also hears appeals from the Magistrates' Court. Trials are heard by a judge and a jury of 12 members of the public.
刑事法院：该法院审理可诉罪行（如抢劫和谋杀等严重犯罪），也审理来自治安法院的上诉。审判由一名法官和一个由12名公众组成的陪审团进行。
Court of Appeal (Criminal Division): It hears appeals from the Crown Court, against conviction or sentence. It does not hold new trials but examines whether the law was applied correctly.
上诉法院（刑事庭）：它审理来自刑事法院的针对定罪或量刑的上诉。它不进行新的审判，而是审查法律是否正确适用。
Supreme Court: The highest court in the UK. It hears appeals on points of law of general public importance. Its decisions bind all lower courts. The Supreme Court replaced the House of Lords as the final appeal court in 2009.
最高法院：英国的最高法院。它审理具有普遍公共重要性的法律问题上诉。其判决对所有下级法院具有约束力。最高法院于2009年取代上议院成为终审上诉法院。
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