📚 Year 7 WJEC Law: Formula and Theorem Quick Reference | Year 7 WJEC 法律：公式定理速查手册
In law, we don't have mathematical formulas, but we do have important principles and rules that work like formulas. These 'legal formulas' and 'theorems' help us understand how legal decisions are made and how law operates in society. This quick reference guide brings together the essential formulas, equations and theorems you need for Year 7 WJEC Law, from criminal liability to contract formation. Use it to revise key concepts quickly and effectively.
在法律中，虽然没有数学公式，但我们有一些重要的原则和规则，它们像公式一样运作。这些“法律公式”和“定理”帮助我们理解法律决定是如何作出的，以及法律在社会中如何运行。本速查手册汇集了 Year 7 WJEC 法律课程所需的基本公式、等式和定理，从刑事责任到合同成立，帮助你快速有效地复习核心概念。
1. The Rule of Law Theorem | 法治定理
No one is above the law, and the law applies equally to all citizens and the government. This is the fundamental theorem that underpins the entire legal system.
没有人凌驾于法律之上，法律平等适用于所有公民和政府。这是支撑整个法律体系的根本性定理。
Rule of Law = Equality Before the Law + Accountability + Fair Process
In practice, this means that even the Prime Minister must follow the law, and everyone has access to a fair trial. The theorem was developed by thinkers like A.V. Dicey and is now a cornerstone of the UK constitution.
在实践中，这意味着即使是首相也必须遵守法律，而且每个人都有权获得公正审判。这个定理由 A.V.戴雪等思想家发展而来，现在是英国宪法的基石。
Equality: everyone is subject to the same laws.
平等：每个人都受相同法律约束。
Accountability: the government can be checked by courts.
问责：政府可被法院审查。
Fair Process: trials must be independent and impartial.
正当程序：审判必须独立、公正。
2. Sources of Law Formula | 法律来源公式
British law comes from three main sources. The formula below shows how they combine to create the whole body of law.
英国法律有三个主要来源。下面的公式展示了它们如何组合构成整个法律体系。
Law = Statute Law (Acts of Parliament) + Common Law (Judge-made Law) + Equity
Statute law is made by Parliament and is the highest form of law. Common law develops from decisions made by judges in courts, and equity adds fairness when common law would give a harsh result.
制定法由议会制定，是最高形式的法律。普通法是从法官的判决中发展而来的，衡平法则在普通法可能导致严苛结果时补充公平。
Statute: Acts like the Theft Act 1968.
制定法：如《1968年盗窃法》。
Common law: the definition of murder developed by judges.
普通法：由法官发展的谋杀定义。
Equity: remedies like injunctions (court orders to stop doing something).
衡平法：补救措施，如禁制令（法院命令停止某事）。
3. Criminal Liability Equation | 刑事责任等式
To find a person guilty of a crime, the prosecution must prove two key elements. This equation is the backbone of criminal law.
要判定一个人有罪，控方必须证明两个关键要素。这个等式是刑法的支柱。
Criminal Liability = Actus Reus (Guilty Act) + Mens Rea (Guilty Mind)
Actus reus is the physical act of the crime, such as taking someone else's property. Mens rea is the mental intention or recklessness, such as intending to permanently deprive the owner. Both must be present for there to be a crime.
犯罪行为是犯罪的物理行为，例如拿走他人的财产。犯罪意图是心理上的故意或轻率，例如意图永久剥夺物主的所有权。两者必须同时存在才构成犯罪。
| Actus Reus | Mens Rea |
|---|---|
| Stabbing someone (assault) | Intention to cause harm |
| Taking goods without paying (theft) | Dishonesty and intent to deprive |
Guilty = Actus Reus + Mens Rea + No Defence
Even if both elements exist, a defence like self-defence can remove liability. Remember: the prosecution must prove the case beyond reasonable doubt.
即使两个要素都存在，像自卫这样的抗辩也可以免除责任。记住：控方必须排除合理怀疑地证明案件。
4. Tort of Negligence Formula | 过失侵权公式
Under civil law, if someone is careless and causes harm, they may be liable for negligence. The formula was established in the famous case Donoghue v Stevenson (1932).
根据民法，如果某人因疏忽造成伤害，可能要承担过失侵权责任。这个公式在著名的 Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) 案中确立。
Negligence = Duty of Care + Breach of Duty + Caused Damage
First, there must be a duty of care – we have a duty not to harm our 'neighbours' (people closely affected by our actions). Second, that duty must be breached (the person fell below the standard of a reasonable person). Third, the breach must cause loss or injury.
首先，必须有注意义务——我们有义务不伤害“邻人”（受我们行为直接影响的人）。其次，该义务必须被违反（该人未达到合理人的标准）。第三，违反必须造成损失或伤害。
Neighbour principle: you must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour.
邻人原则：你必须采取合理注意，避免你可以合理预见到可能会伤害邻人的作为或不作为。
Example: a driver owes a duty to other road users. If they text while driving and cause a crash, they breach their duty and are liable for damages.
示例：司机对其他道路使用者负有义务。如果边开车边发信息导致撞车，就违反了义务，并需承担损害赔偿责任。
5. Contract Formation Formula | 合同成立公式
A legally binding contract does not need to be written down, but it must contain certain essential elements. The formula for a valid contract is simple to remember.
具有法律约束力的合同不一定是书面的，但必须包含某些基本要素。有效合同的公式很容易记住。
Contract = Offer + Acceptance + Consideration + Intention to Create Legal Relations
Offer: a clear proposal made by one party. Acceptance: unconditional agreement to all terms of the offer. Consideration: something of value exchanged between the parties (e.g. money for goods). Intention to create legal relations: both sides must intend to be legally bound (presumed in business deals).
要约：一方提出的明确提议。承诺：无条件同意要约的所有条款。对价：双方交换的有价物（如金钱换货物）。建立法律关系的意图：双方都必须打算受法律约束（商业交易中推定存在）。
| Element | Everyday example |
|---|---|
| Offer | 'I will buy your bike for £50' |
| Acceptance | 'Yes, I agree to sell it for £50' |
| Consideration | The bike and the £50 |
| Intention | Both intend to complete the sale |
6. Criminal Age of Responsibility Rule | 刑事责任年龄规则
In England and Wales, children under a certain age cannot be charged with a criminal offence. This is a fixed rule, based on the idea that very young children do not fully understand the consequences of their actions.
在英格兰和威尔士，未满一定年龄的儿童不能被指控犯罪。这是一条固定规则，基于年幼儿童不完全理解其行为后果的理念。
Age of Criminal Responsibility = 10 years old
This means that a child aged 9 or below is legally considered incapable of committing a crime (doli incapax). From age 10 to 17, young people are dealt with in youth courts and are treated differently from adults, but they can still be found guilty of offences.
这意味着 9 岁及以下的儿童在法律上被视为无犯罪能力（doli incapax）。10 岁到 17 岁的青少年在青少年法庭处理，与成年人区别对待，但仍可被判有罪。
Below 10: no criminal liability, but possible child protection intervention.
10 岁以下：无刑事责任，但可能有儿童保护措施介入。
Age 10–17: can be prosecuted in youth courts; maximum sentences are lower than for adults.
10 至 17 岁：可在青少年法庭被起诉；最高刑期低于成年人。
Age 18 and over: treated as an adult in magistrates' or Crown Court.
18 岁及以上：在治安法院或刑事法院作为成年人处理。
7. Standard of Proof Theorem | 证明标准定理
The standard of proof is how certain the judge or jury must be before finding for one side. There are two very different standards depending on whether the case is criminal or civil.
证明标准是指法官或陪审团在作出裁决前必须达到的确定性程度。刑事和民事案件有两个截然不同的标准。
Criminal standard: Beyond Reasonable Doubt
Civil standard: On the Balance of Probabilities
In criminal trials, the prosecution must make the jury sure that the defendant is guilty. If there is any reasonable doubt, the defendant should be found not guilty. In civil cases, the claimant only needs to show that their version of events is more likely than not (more than 50% probable). This is why a person can be found not guilty of murder in a criminal court but still have to pay compensation for wrongful death in a civil court.
在刑事审判中，控方必须让陪审团确信被告有罪。如果存在任何合理怀疑，就应判被告无罪。在民事案件中，原告只需证明其说法更有可能成立（可能性超过 50%）。这就是为什么一个人可以在刑事法庭被判谋杀罪名不成立，但在民事法庭仍需为错误致死支付赔偿。
| Criminal | Civil | |
|---|---|---|
| Standard | Beyond reasonable doubt | Balance of probabilities |
| Metaphor | Very sure, almost certain | More likely than not (51%+) |
8. Precedent Principle | 先例原则
The doctrine of precedent (stare decisis) is a fundamental theorem of the common law system. It ensures that similar cases are decided in similar ways, providing consistency and fairness.
先例原则（遵循先例）是普通法体系的基本定理。它确保相似案件得到相似判决，提供一致性和公平性。
Precedent = Ratio Decidendi (binding reason) + Obiter Dicta (persuasive comments)
When a higher court decides a case, its legal reason for the decision (ratio decidendi) must be followed by lower courts in future cases with similar facts. For example, the Supreme Court's decisions bind the Court of Appeal and all courts below. The hierarchy of courts is therefore crucial.
当上级法院判决案件时，其判决的法律理由（判决理由）必须被下级法院在未来相似事实的案件中遵循。例如，最高法院的判决约束上诉法院及所有下级法院。因此，法院层级至关重要。
Supreme Court (the highest court in the UK) binds all courts below.
英国最高法院约束所有下级法院。
Court of Appeal binds High Court, Crown Court and lower courts.
上诉法院约束高等法院、刑事法院和下级法院。
Magistrates' courts and County Courts do not set binding precedents.
治安法院和郡法院不创设约束性先例。
9. Statutory Interpretation Rules | 法规解释规则
When judges apply an Act of Parliament, they often need to interpret the words. There are three main rules or formulas they use to work out Parliament's intention.
当法官适用议会立法时，常常需要解释条文。他们使用三个主要规则或公式来推断议会的意图。
Interpretation = Literal Rule | Golden Rule | Mischief Rule
Literal Rule: give words their plain, ordinary dictionary meaning, even if the result seems harsh. Example: Whitely v Chappell (1868) – a dead person was found 'not entitled to vote' because the statute said 'any person entitled to vote'.
字面规则：按词语在字典中的普通含义解释，即使结果似乎严苛。例：Whitely v Chappell (1868) – 死者被裁定“无投票权”，因为法条说“任何有投票权的人”。
Golden Rule: follow the literal meaning unless it would lead to an absurd result, then the judge can modify the meaning to avoid absurdity. Example: R v Allen (1872) – the word 'marry' was interpreted to mean 'go through a ceremony of marriage' to prevent an absurd outcome in bigamy cases.
黄金规则：遵循字面含义，除非会导致荒谬结果，此时法官可调整含义以避免荒谬。例：R v Allen (1872) – “结婚”一词被解释为“举行婚礼仪式”，以避免重婚案中的荒谬结果。
Mischief Rule: the court looks at what problem (mischief) the Act was trying to fix and interprets the words to suppress that mischief. Example: Smith v Hughes (1960) – prostitutes soliciting from a balcony were caught by the Street Offences Act because the mischief was annoying the public.
除弊规则：法院考察该法试图解决什么问题（弊端），并解释条文以消除该弊端。例：Smith v Hughes (1960) – 妓女在阳台招客仍受《街头犯罪法》管辖，因为弊端是骚扰公众。
10. Damages Principle | 损害赔偿原则
In civil cases, the usual remedy is damages – a sum of money awarded to the claimant. The principle is to put the injured person back in the position they would have been in if the wrong had not occurred, as far as money can do so.
在民事案件中，通常的补救措施是损害赔偿——判给原告的一笔钱。原则是尽可能用金钱使受害人回到不法行为未发生时的状态。
Damages = Compensation for Loss + Interest (sometimes) + Costs
Damages are not meant to punish (that is rare in civil law), but to compensate. The amount can include:
Special damages: quantifiable financial losses, e.g. medical bills, repair costs, lost earnings up to the trial date.
特别损害赔偿：可量化的经济损失，如医疗费、修理费、截至审判日的收入损失。
General damages: losses that are harder to put a price on, e.g. pain and suffering, loss of future earnings, loss of amenity (inability to enjoy hobbies).
一般损害赔偿：难以定价的损失，如疼痛与痛苦、未来收入损失、生活品质下降（无法享受爱好）。
The court aims to award a fair figure based on evidence and published guidelines. In tort cases, the claimant must take reasonable steps to minimise their loss (mitigation).
法院依据证据和公布的指引判给一个公平的数额。在侵权案中，原告必须采取合理措施减少损失（减损原则）。
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