📚 Year 7 WJEC Sociology: Core Knowledge Review | Year 7 WJEC 社会学：核心知识点梳理
Sociology helps us understand the world we live in by examining how society is organised and how people interact within it. This review covers the essential knowledge Year 7 students need for the WJEC Sociology course, from key concepts to core topics such as socialisation, family, education and research methods. Each section provides clear explanations paired in English and Chinese, making it easier to grasp the ideas and prepare for assessments.
社会学帮助我们通过审视社会的组织方式以及人们在其中的互动来理解我们所生活的世界。这篇知识点梳理涵盖了 Year 7 学生在 WJEC 社会学课程中需要掌握的核心内容，从关键概念到社会化、家庭、教育、研究方法等重要主题。每一部分都配有中英对照的清晰解释，帮助理解和备考。
1. What is Sociology? | 什么是社会学？
Sociology is the systematic study of society, social relationships and social institutions. It tries to explain how human behaviour is shaped by the groups people belong to and by the wider culture they live in. Rather than just describing what happens, sociologists look for patterns and connections between different parts of social life.
社会学是对社会、社会关系和社会制度的系统研究。它试图解释人类行为如何受到人们所属群体及其所处更广泛文化的影响。社会学家不仅仅是描述发生的事情，他们还会寻找社会生活中不同部分之间的模式和联系。
Sociologists ask questions such as: Why do some students achieve more at school than others? How has family life changed over time? Why do certain acts become illegal? These questions help us see that many personal troubles are actually linked to larger social forces.
社会学家会提出这样的问题：为什么有些学生在学校成绩更好？家庭生活是如何随时间变化的？为什么某些行为会被定为非法？这些问题有助于我们看到，许多个人困扰实际上与更大的社会力量相关。
A key idea in sociology is the sociological imagination – the ability to see the link between personal experiences and the wider society. For example, losing a job might feel like a personal failure, but a sociologist would also look at unemployment rates, the economy and government policies.
社会学的一个关键概念是社会学想象力——即看到个人经历与更广泛社会之间联系的能力。例如，失业可能让人感觉是个人失败，但社会学家还会关注失业率、经济状况和政府政策。
2. Key Sociological Perspectives | 主要社会学视角
A perspective is a way of looking at the world. In sociology, different perspectives offer different explanations for how society works. The three most common perspectives taught in Year 7 are functionalism, Marxism and feminism.
视角是一种看待世界的方式。在社会学中，不同的视角对社会运作方式给出了不同的解释。Year 7 最常学到的三种视角是功能主义、马克思主义和女性主义。
Functionalism sees society as a system made up of interconnected parts – such as the family, education and the government – that all work together to maintain stability and order. Just like organs in a body, each part has a function that helps the whole society survive. For example, functionalists argue that education transmits shared values and prepares young people for adult roles.
功能主义将社会视为一个由相互关联的部分组成的系统——如家庭、教育和政府——这些部分共同维持稳定和秩序。就像人体内的器官一样，每个部分都有帮助整个社会生存的功能。例如，功能主义者认为教育传递共同的价值观，并让年轻人为成年角色做好准备。
Marxism is a conflict perspective based on the ideas of Karl Marx. It argues that society is divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (the ruling class who own the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class who sell their labour). Marxists see social institutions as tools that help the rich keep their power and exploit the poor.
马克思主义是一种基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突视角。它认为社会分为两个主要阶级：资产阶级（拥有生产资料的统治阶级）和无产阶级（出卖劳动力的工人阶级）。马克思主义者将社会制度视为帮助富人维持权力并剥削穷人的工具。
Feminism focuses on gender inequality. Feminists point out that women often have fewer opportunities and less power than men in areas such as work, politics and family life. They argue that society is patriarchal – meaning it is dominated by men. There are different types of feminism, but they all aim to understand and challenge gender-based inequalities.
女性主义关注性别不平等。女性主义者指出，女性在工作、政治和家庭生活等领域往往比男性拥有更少的机会和更小的权力。她们认为社会是父权制的——即由男性主导。女性主义有不同类型，但都致力于理解并挑战基于性别的不平等。
3. The Process of Socialisation | 社会化过程
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, customs and behaviours that are expected in their society. It is how we become functioning members of our community. Without socialisation, a person would not know how to behave appropriately in different social situations.
社会化是一个贯穿一生的过程，个体通过它学习社会所期望的规范、价值观、习俗和行为。这是我们成为社区中正常运作成员的方式。没有社会化，人就不会知道如何在不同的社交场合中得体行事。
Primary socialisation takes place in early childhood, mainly within the family. Here, children learn basic language, manners, and emotional bonds. They also absorb core values such as honesty, respect for elders, and ideas about gender roles. The family is often called the first and most important agent of socialisation.
初级社会化发生在幼儿期，主要在家庭中进行。在这里，儿童学习基本的语言、礼仪和情感纽带。他们还吸收诚实、尊重长辈等核心价值观，以及关于性别角色的观念。家庭通常被称为第一个也是最重要的社会化主体。
Secondary socialisation occurs later, when children and adults encounter new agents of socialisation outside the family. These include schools, peer groups, the media and workplaces. In school, children learn to follow rules, cooperate with others and respect authority figures beyond their parents. Peer groups can strongly influence tastes in music, fashion and slang.
次级社会化发生在之后，当儿童和成年人接触到家庭之外的新社会化主体时。这些主体包括学校、同辈群体、媒体和工作场所。在学校里，儿童学会遵守规则、与人合作以及尊重父母以外的权威人物。同辈群体会强烈影响音乐品味、时尚和俚语的使用。
The media also plays a powerful role in secondary socialisation by presenting images of 'normal' behaviour, beauty and success. Through television, social media and advertising, people receive messages about what is considered acceptable or desirable in society, which can shape their attitudes and aspirations.
媒体通过展示'正常'行为、美和成功的形象，在次级社会化中也扮演着强有力的角色。通过电视、社交媒体和广告，人们接收到关于社会中什么是可接受或可渴望的信息，这会塑造他们的态度和抱负。
4. Culture, Norms and Values | 文化、规范与价值观
Culture refers to the shared way of life of a group of people, including their language, beliefs, customs, art, music and food. It is the lens through which members of a society understand the world. Culture is learned through socialisation, not inherited biologically.
文化指的是一个群体共享的生活方式，包括他们的语言、信仰、习俗、艺术、音乐和饮食。它是社会成员理解世界的透镜。文化是通过社会化学到的，而不是通过生物遗传获得的。
Norms are the unwritten rules that guide everyday behaviour in particular situations. They vary between cultures and over time. For instance, in some cultures it is normal to queue politely, while in others people may push forward. Breaking a norm might lead to mild disapproval, but consistently breaking important norms can result in serious sanctions.
规范是指导特定情境下日常行为的不成文规则。它们因文化和时代而异。例如，在某些文化中，礼貌排队是正常的，而在其他文化中人们可能会向前挤。打破规范可能会导致轻微的不满，但持续打破重要规范则可能招致严厉的制裁。
Values are deeper beliefs about what is right, wrong and important. They underpin the norms of a society. Common values in many societies include freedom, equality, respect and hard work. Norms and values together create social order because they give people a sense of what is expected of them.
价值观是关于什么是正确、错误以及重要事情的更深层信念。它们支撑着社会的规范。许多社会共有的价值观包括自由、平等、尊重和勤奋。规范和价值观共同创造了社会秩序，因为它们让人们了解对自身的期望。
Cultural diversity describes the existence of a variety of cultural groups within a society. In multicultural Britain, people with different ethnic backgrounds, religions and traditions live together. This diversity can enrich a society, but it can also create challenges if groups do not understand or respect each other's norms and values.
文化多样性描述了一个社会内存在多种文化群体。在多元文化的英国，不同族裔背景、宗教和传统的人们生活在一起。这种多样性可以丰富社会，但如果群体之间不理解或不尊重彼此的规范和价值观，也会带来挑战。
5. Family Diversity and Change | 家庭多样性与变迁
The family is one of the most important social institutions. In Year 7 Sociology, students learn that families can take many different forms, and what is considered a 'normal' family has changed considerably over the last century.
家庭是最重要的社会制度之一。在 Year 7 社会学中，学生会学到家庭可以有多种不同形式，被视为'正常'的家庭在过去一个世纪里已经发生了很大变化。
The nuclear family consists of a married or cohabiting couple and their dependent children. For much of the 20th century this was seen as the traditional family type in Britain. However, sociologists now recognise that many children grow up in extended families, lone-parent families, reconstituted (step) families and same-sex parent families.
核心家庭由一对已婚或同居的夫妇及其受抚养子女组成。在 20 世纪的大部分时间里，这被视为英国的传统家庭类型。然而，社会学家现在认识到，许多儿童在扩展家庭、单亲家庭、重组（继亲）家庭和同性家长家庭中成长。
An extended family includes relatives such as grandparents, aunts and uncles living together or nearby and providing support. Lone-parent families are headed by one parent, usually the mother. Reconstituted families are formed when adults bring children from previous relationships into a new household. Same-sex families are led by two parents of the same gender.
扩展家庭包括祖父母、阿姨舅舅等亲戚同住或住在附近并相互支持。单亲家庭由一位家长（通常是母亲）独自抚养子女。重组家庭是成年人与前段关系中带来的子女组成的新家庭。同性家庭由两位同性别的家长带领。
Reasons for this diversity include higher divorce rates, greater acceptance of different sexual orientations, women's increased financial independence and changing social attitudes. Family diversity matters because different family structures can affect the resources, emotional support and socialisation experiences available to children.
这种多样性产生的原因包括离婚率上升、对不同性取向接受度提高、女性经济独立性增强以及社会态度的变化。家庭多样性之所以重要，是因为不同的家庭结构会影响儿童可获得的资源、情感支持和社会化经历。
6. Education and Social Inequality | 教育与社会不平等
Education is a major agent of secondary socialisation. It is meant to give everyone equal opportunities to develop their abilities and succeed. However, sociologists have found that educational achievement is strongly linked to factors such as social class, ethnicity and gender.
教育是次级社会化的重要主体。它本应让每个人都有平等的机会发展能力和获得成功。然而，社会学家发现，教育成就与社会阶层、族裔和性别等因素密切相关。
Material deprivation explains why working-class students may underachieve. Families with low incomes may struggle to afford books, a quiet study space, private tutoring or school trips. Poor housing and overcrowding can make it difficult to do homework and get enough sleep, which affects concentration at school.
物质匮乏解释了工人阶级学生为何可能成绩不佳。低收入家庭可能难以负担书本、安静的学习空间、私人补习或学校旅行。住房条件差和过度拥挤会使做作业和获得足够睡眠变得困难，从而影响在校注意力。
Cultural deprivation suggests that some working-class families may not have the same language skills, parental encouragement or attitudes towards education as middle-class families. This can put children at a disadvantage before they even start school. However, many sociologists warn against blaming the families themselves, pointing instead to wider inequalities in society.
文化剥夺理论认为，一些工人阶级家庭可能没有中产阶级家庭那样的语言技能、父母鼓励或对教育的态度。这可能使孩子在入学之前就处于不利地位。然而，许多社会学家警告不要责怪家庭本身，他们指出问题在于更广泛的社会不平等。
Labelling theory highlights the power of teacher expectations. If a teacher labels a pupil as bright and hardworking, that pupil may respond positively and succeed (a self-fulfilling prophecy). On the other hand, a negative label can lead to underperformance and resentment. Schools may also use setting or streaming, which can widen the achievement gap between different groups.
标签理论强调教师期望的作用。如果一位教师给某个学生贴上聪明勤奋的标签，该学生可能会积极回应并取得成功（自我实现的预言）。反之，负面标签可能导致成绩不佳和怨恨。学校还可能采取分班或分级教学，这可能扩大不同群体之间的成绩差距。
7. Social Stratification and Class | 社会分层与阶级
Social stratification refers to the way society is layered into different groups based on factors like wealth, income, status and power. In the UK, social class is one of the most common forms of stratification. It shapes life chances – the opportunities people have to enjoy good health, education, housing and security.
社会分层是指社会根据财富、收入、地位和权力等因素被划分成不同层次的方式。在英国，社会阶级是最常见的分层形式之一。它塑造了生活机会——即人们获得良好健康、教育、住房和保障的机会。
Sociologists often divide the class structure into upper class, middle class and working class. The upper class owns significant land, property and businesses and may have inherited wealth. The middle class tends to have professional or managerial jobs, higher incomes and more job security. The working class typically works in manual or routine service jobs, with lower pay and less stability.
社会学家通常将阶级结构分为上层阶级、中产阶级和工人阶级。上层阶级拥有大量土地、资产和企业，并可能有继承的财富。中产阶级往往从事专业或管理工作，拥有较高收入和更强的工作保障。工人阶级通常从事体力劳动或常规服务工作，工资较低且稳定性较差。
Wealth and income are not the same: income is the flow of money received (such as wages or benefits), while wealth refers to the assets people own (property, shares, savings). Wealth inequality is far greater than income inequality. The gap between rich and poor affects not only living standards but also political influence and social status.
财富与收入不同：收入是收到的资金流（如工资或福利），而财富指人们拥有的资产（房产、股票、储蓄）。财富不平等远大于收入不平等。贫富差距不仅影响生活水平，还影响政治影响力和社会地位。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between different class positions. It can be upward (rising to a higher class) or downward (falling to a lower one). High levels of social mobility suggest a more open society, but research shows that background and family wealth still strongly determine people's futures in the UK.
社会流动是个人或群体在不同阶级地位之间的移动。它可以是向上的（升至更高阶级）或向下的（降至更低阶级）。高水平的社会流动表明社会更加开放，但研究表明，在英国，出身和家庭财富仍然強烈决定人们的未来。
8. Crime, Deviance and Social Order | 犯罪、越轨与社会秩序
Deviance refers to behaviour that breaks the norms or expectations of a particular society. It is not always illegal – wearing unusual clothes or speaking loudly in a library might be deviant but not criminal. Crime, on the other hand, is behaviour that breaks the formal written laws of a society and can be punished by the state.
越轨是指打破特定社会规范或期望的行为。它并不总是违法的——穿奇装异服或在图书馆大声说话可能属于越轨但不构成犯罪。另一方面，犯罪是指打破社会正式成文法律并会受到国家惩罚的行为。
What counts as deviant or criminal varies across cultures and changes over time. For instance, attitudes towards drinking alcohol, same-sex relationships and even school attendance have shifted. Sociologists are interested in why some acts are criminalised while others are not, and who gets to create and enforce the rules.
什么算作越轨或犯罪因文化而异，并随时间改变。例如，对饮酒、同性关系和甚至上学出勤的态度已经发生了变化。社会学家感兴趣的是，为什么有些行为被定为犯罪而另一些没有，以及由谁来制定和执行规则。
Official crime statistics are collected by the police and courts, but they do not always give a complete picture of crime. The dark figure of crime refers to all the offences that go unreported or unrecorded. This can happen because victims are afraid, ashamed or distrust the police, or because the police do not record every report formally.
官方犯罪统计数据由警察和法院收集，但它们并不总是给出犯罪的全貌。犯罪的隐数是指所有未被报告或未被记录的违法行为。这可能是因为受害者害怕、羞愧或不信任警察，或者因为警方没有正式记录每一项报案。
Sociologists also examine the role of agencies of social control, such as the police, courts and prisons. These institutions are supposed to protect the public and uphold the law, but some perspectives argue they can unfairly target certain groups. For example, young, working-class and ethnic minority males are more likely to be stopped and searched, and to receive harsher sentences.
社会学家还研究社会控制机构的作用，如警察、法院和监狱。这些机构本应保护公众和维护法律，但一些观点认为它们可能不公平地针对某些群体。例如，年轻、工人阶级和少数族裔男性更有可能被拦截搜查并受到更严厉的判决。
9. Sociological Research Methods | 社会学研究方法
To build reliable knowledge about society, sociologists use a range of research methods. The choice of method depends on the research question, practical constraints and theoretical approach. Research can be classified as quantitative (involving numbers and statistics) or qualitative (involving in-depth understanding of meanings and experiences).
为了建立关于社会的可靠知识，社会学家使用一系列研究方法。方法的选择取决于研究问题、实际限制和理论取向。研究可分为定量研究（涉及数字和统计）或定性研究（深入理解意义和经历）。
Questionnaires are a common quantitative method. They involve a list of written questions sent to a large number of people. They can be completed quickly and cheaply, and the results can be easily compared. However, respondents may not answer truthfully, and closed questions can limit the depth of response.
问卷调查是一种常见的定量方法。它包含一系列书面问题，发送给大量的人。问卷可以快速、廉价地完成，结果也易于比较。然而，受访者可能不真实作答，封闭式问题会限制回答的深度。
Interviews can be structured (with set questions), unstructured (open conversation) or semi-structured. They allow researchers to explore topics in detail and pick up on feelings and body language. Unstructured interviews produce rich qualitative data, but they are time‑consuming and harder to analyse systematically.
访谈可以是结构式的（设有固定问题）、非结构式的（开放式对话）或半结构式的。它能让研究者深入探讨主题并捕捉感受和肢体语言。非结构式访谈产生丰富的定性数据，但耗时较长，也较难系统分析。
Observation involves watching people in their natural environment. Participant observation is when the researcher joins the group being studied, which can uncover genuine behaviours but risks the observer becoming too involved. Non‑participant observation is when the researcher watches from a distance. Both raise ethical concerns about deception and privacy.
观察法涉及在自然环境中观察人群。参与式观察是研究者加入被研究的群体，能够揭示真实行为，但有观察者过度卷入的风险。非参与式观察是研究者从远处观看。两者都引发了关于欺骗和隐私的伦理关切。
Ethical issues are central in sociological research. Participants should give informed consent, their anonymity should be protected, and they should not be harmed physically or psychologically. Sociologists must also be honest about their findings and avoid bias, even if the results contradict their own views.
伦理问题在社会学研究中至关重要。参与者应给予知情同意，其匿名性应受保护，他们不应受到身体或心理伤害。社会学家还必须诚实地报告发现并避免偏见，即使结果与自己的观点相矛盾。
10. Media and Society | 媒体与社会
The mass media – including television, newspapers, social media and the internet – is a powerful force in contemporary society. It acts as an agent of socialisation, especially for young people, and influences public opinion, consumption and politics. Year 7 students explore how the media shapes norms, values and the way we see the world.
大众媒体——包括电视、报纸、社交媒体和互联网——是当代社会中的一股强大力量。它充当社会化主体，尤其对年轻人影响很大，并影响公众舆论、消费和政治。Year 7 学生探索媒体如何塑造规范、价值观以及我们看待世界的方式。
Media representation refers to how different groups – such as women, ethnic minorities, the working class or young people – are portrayed. These portrayals can create or reinforce stereotypes. For instance, if news reports disproportionately link young people with crime, the public may start to distrust all young individuals, affecting their life chances.
媒体再现指的是不同群体——如女性、少数族裔、工人阶级或年轻人——被如何描绘。这些描绘可能制造或强化刻板印象。例如，如果新闻报道不成比例地将年轻人与犯罪联系在一起，公众可能会开始不信任所有年轻人，从而影响他们的人生机会。
The media also has a gatekeeping role, deciding which stories are newsworthy and how they are framed. Powerful individuals and organisations, including politicians and large corporations, may try to influence media content to serve their own interests. This raises questions about who controls the media and how balanced the information we receive really is.
媒体还有把关作用，决定哪些故事具有新闻价值以及如何构建叙述。有影响力的个人和组织，包括政治人物和大企业，可能会试图影响媒体内容以服务自身利益。这就引发了谁控制媒体以及我们收到的信息究竟有多平衡的问题。
New digital media has changed how we interact and participate. Unlike traditional media, social media platforms allow users to create and share content instantly. This can empower ordinary people to voice their opinions and organise social movements, but it also brings risks such as the spread of misinformation, cyberbullying and reduced face‑to‑face interaction.
新数字媒体改变了我们互动和参与的方式。与传統媒體不同，社交媒体平台允许用户即时创作和分享内容。这能賦予普通人发表意见和组织社会运动的力量，但也带来了虚假信息传播、网络欺凌和面对面互动减少等风险。
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