📚 Year 7 WJEC Biology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 7 WJEC 生物：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your handy quick-reference guide for Year 7 WJEC Biology. This handbook covers the essential formulas, equations, and key concepts you need to master the topic. Keep this by your side as you revise, and you will have all the core knowledge at your fingertips.
欢迎使用 Year 7 WJEC 生物便捷速查手册。本手册涵盖了你需要掌握的关键公式、方程式和重要概念。复习时把它放在手边，核心知识便可一网打尽。
1. The Cell | 细胞
All living organisms are made up of cells. The cell is the basic unit of life, and there are two main types: animal cells and plant cells.
所有生物体都是由细胞构成的。细胞是生命的基本单位，主要分为两类：动物细胞和植物细胞。
Animal cells contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane and mitochondria. The nucleus controls the cell, cytoplasm is where reactions happen, the cell membrane controls what enters and leaves, and mitochondria release energy through respiration.
动物细胞包含细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜和线粒体。细胞核控制细胞活动，细胞质是反应发生的场所，细胞膜控制物质进出，线粒体通过呼吸作用释放能量。
Plant cells contain all of the above plus a cell wall made of cellulose, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and a large permanent vacuole filled with cell sap. The cell wall provides support, chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, and the vacuole keeps the cell turgid.
植物细胞除了上述结构外，还有由纤维素构成的细胞壁、进行光合作用的叶绿体以及充满细胞液的大液泡。细胞壁提供支撑，叶绿体含有叶绿素，液泡使细胞保持坚挺。
2. Microscopy and Magnification | 显微镜与放大倍数
mula for calculating magnification is essential: Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size.
光学显微镜使用透镜放大微小物体。计算放大倍数的公式至关重要：放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小。
5 ÷ 0.05 = 100×. Always make sure both measurements are in the same units before dividing.
例如，如果细胞图像量得 5 毫米，而实际细胞是 0.05 毫米，那么放大倍数 = 5 ÷ 0.05 = 100 倍。务必确保两个数值单位一致后再相除。
a microscope is also given by: Eyepiece lens magnification × Objective lens magnification.
显微镜的总放大倍数也可由下式计算：目镜放大倍数 × 物镜放大倍数。
3. Photosynthesis Equation | 光合作用方程式
n is: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll.
光合作用是绿色植物利用光能制造自身养料的过程。文字方程式为：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气（在光和叶绿素存在下）。
→ C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. Glucose is stored as starch in the plant, and oxygen is released as a by‑product.
配平的化学方程式为：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂。植物将葡萄糖以淀粉形式储存，氧气则作为副产品释放。
Remember: Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts, and the green pigment chlorophyll absorbs light energy, mainly from the blue and red parts of the spectrum.
记住：光合作用发生在叶绿体内，绿色色素叶绿素主要吸收光谱中蓝光和红光区域的光能。
4. Aerobic Respiration Equation | 有氧呼吸方程式
Respiration is the process that releases energy from food in all living cells. It is not the same as breathing; it is a chemical reaction.
呼吸作用是所有活细胞从食物中释放能量的过程。它不同于呼吸运动，而是一种化学反应。
dioxide + water (+ energy). Energy is used for movement, growth, repair and keeping warm.
有氧呼吸的文字方程式为：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水（+ 能量）。能量用于运动、生长、修复和保持体温。
H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O. This reaction occurs continuously in the mitochondria of cells.
配平的化学方程式为：C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O。该反应在细胞的线粒体中持续进行。
5. Balanced Diet and Nutrient Groups | 均衡饮食与营养素类别
A balanced diet provides all the necessary nutrients in the correct proportions. The main nutrient groups are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats), vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and water.
均衡饮食按正确比例提供所有必需的营养素。主要营养素类别包括碳水化合物、蛋白质、脂类（脂肪）、维生素、矿物质、膳食纤维和水。
Carbohydrates provide quick energy. Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are found in fruit and sweets; complex carbohydrates (starch) are found in bread, pasta and rice.
碳水化合物提供快速能量。简单碳水化合物（糖）存在于水果和糖果中；复杂碳水化合物（淀粉）存在于面包、面食和米饭中。
Proteins are needed for growth and repair of body tissues. Rich sources include meat, fish, eggs and beans. Lipids provide long‑term energy storage and insulation.
蛋白质用于身体组织的生长和修复。丰富来源包括肉、鱼、蛋和豆类。脂类提供长期能量储存和绝缘保护。
6. The Digestive System | 消化系统
Digestion breaks down large, insoluble food molecules into small, soluble ones that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Enzymes speed up these chemical reactions.
消化将大分子、不溶性食物分解成可吸收进入血液的小分子、可溶性物质。酶加速这些化学反应。
Carbohydrases break down starch into simple sugars. Proteases break down proteins into amino acids. Lipases break down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
碳水化合物酶将淀粉分解为单糖。蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸。脂肪酶将脂肪分解为甘油和脂肪酸。
The main organs involved are the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. Absorption of nutrients occurs mainly in the small intestine through villi.
主要参与的器官有口腔、食道、胃、小肠、大肠和肛门。营养物质的吸收主要在小肠通过绒毛进行。
7. The Circulatory System | 循环系统
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones and waste products around the body. It consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood.
循环系统将氧气、营养物质、激素和废物输送到全身。它由心脏、血管和血液组成。
The heart is a muscular pump with four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. Blood flows through the body in a double circulatory system – one circuit delivers blood to the lungs, the other to the rest of the body.
心脏是一个肌性泵，有四个腔室：两个心房和两个心室。血液通过双循环系统流动——一条回路将血液送至肺部，另一条送至身体其余部分。
Arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins carry blood back to the heart; capillaries connect arteries and veins and allow exchange of substances.
动脉将血液运出心脏；静脉将血液送回心脏；毛细血管连接动脉和静脉，进行物质交换。
8. Human Reproduction | 人类生殖
Reproduction ensures the continuation of a species. In humans, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (egg) during fertilisation.
生殖确保物种的延续。人类的性生殖涉及精子（雄性配子）和卵子（雌性配子）在受精过程中的融合。
The male reproductive system produces sperm in the testes and delivers them through the penis. The female reproductive system produces eggs in the ovaries, and the fertilised egg implants in the uterus.
男性生殖系统在睾丸中产生精子，并通过阴茎输送。女性生殖系统在卵巢中产生卵子，受精卵植入子宫。
The fertilised egg (zygote) divides to form an embryo, which develops into a foetus. The placenta allows exchange of nutrients and oxygen between mother and baby.
受精卵（合子）分裂形成胚胎，进而发育成胎儿。胎盘实现母体与胎儿之间营养物质和氧气的交换。
9. Food Chains and Energy Flow | 食物链与能量流动
osystem. Arrows represent the direction of energy flow. For example: grass → rabbit → fox.
食物链显示生态系统中谁吃谁。箭头代表能量流动的方向。例如：草 → 兔 → 狐狸。
Energy enters most ecosystems as sunlight and is captured by producers (green plants). Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms. Decomposers break down dead material and return nutrients to the soil.
能量多以阳光形式进入生态系统，被生产者（绿色植物）捕获。消费者通过摄食其他生物获得能量。分解者分解死物质，将养分归还土壤。
Roughly only 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next; the rest is lost as heat, movement or waste. This is sometimes called the 10% rule.
大约只有 10% 的能量从一个营养级传递到下一级；其余的能量以热量、运动或废物的形式散失。这有时被称为 10% 定律。
10. Classification of Living Things | 生物分类
Scientists classify living organisms into groups based on shared features. The five kingdoms are Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protists and Prokaryotes (bacteria).
科学家根据共同特征将生物分类。五个界为：动物界、植物界、真菌界、原生生物界和原核生物界（细菌）。
Within each kingdom, organisms are further divided into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. The binomial naming system uses the genus and species, e.g. Homo sapiens for humans.
每个界内，生物进一步分为门、纲、目、科、属、种。双名命名法使用属名和种名，例如人类为 Homo sapiens。
Classification keys, such as dichotomous keys, use a series of questions with two alternative answers to identify unknown organisms.
分类检索表，如二叉式检索表，利用一系列具有两个选项的问题来鉴定未知生物。
11. Adaptations and Habitats | 适应性与栖息地
An adaptation is a feature that helps an organism survive in its habitat. Adaptations can be structural (body shape or colour), behavioural (how it acts) or functional (internal processes).
适应性是帮助生物在其栖息地生存的特征。适应性可以是结构性的（体型或颜色）、行为性的（行为方式）或功能性的（内部过程）。
Examples: a camel has long eyelashes and nostrils that close to keep out sand (structural); a hedgehog curls into a ball for protection (behavioural); a desert plant stores water in thick stems (functional).
例如：骆驼有长睫毛和可关闭的鼻孔以阻挡沙子（结构性）；刺猬蜷缩成球以自卫（行为性）；沙漠植物在肥厚的茎中储水（功能性）。
Animals and plants are adapted to extreme environments such as polar regions, deserts and deep oceans. Understanding adaptations helps explain why organisms are found in certain places.
动植物适应于极地、沙漠和深海等极端环境。了解适应性有助于解释生物为何分布在特定区域。
12. Key Definitions and Quick Facts | 关键定义与快速事实
- Cell respiration: the release of energy from food, occurring in mitochondria.
- 细胞呼吸：从食物中释放能量，发生在线粒体中。
- Diffusion: net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration.
- 扩散：粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动。
- Osmosis: diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane.
- 渗透作用：水通过半透膜进行的扩散。
- Enzyme: biological catalyst that speeds up reactions without being used up.
- 酶：生物催化剂，加速反应而自身不被消耗。
- Hormone: chemical messenger carried in the blood to target organs.
- 激素：通过血液运送至靶器官的化学信使。
- Biodiversity: the variety of living organisms in an ecosystem.
- 生物多样性：生态系统中生物的多样性。
- Habitat: the place where an organism lives.
- 栖息地：生物居住的地方。
- Population: all the organisms of one species living in a habitat.
- 种群：生活在同一栖息地的同一物种的所有个体。
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