📚 Year 7 AQA Philosophy: Key Terms Quick Memorisation Guide | Year 7 AQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is the first step towards thinking clearly about life's biggest questions. This guide breaks down essential Year 7 AQA Philosophy terms into simple, memorable explanations, with each key idea presented in both English and Mandarin to strengthen your understanding and recall.
掌握哲学词汇是清晰思考人生大问题的第一步。这份指南将 Year 7 AQA 哲学的核心术语分解为简单、好记的解释，每个关键概念都配有中英双语讲解，帮助你加深理解并快速记忆。
1. What is Philosophy? | 哲学是什么
Philosophy: The word comes from the Greek 'philo' (love) and 'sophia' (wisdom). It is the activity of asking fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, values and reasoning, and seeking well-supported answers.
哲学：这个词源于希腊语“philo”（爱）和“sophia”（智慧）。它是一种追问关于实在、知识、价值与推理的根本问题并寻求有根据答案的活动。
Philosopher: A thinker who examines life's big questions in a logical and critical way, rather than just accepting common beliefs.
哲学家：以逻辑和批判的方式审视人生大问题，而非简单接受流俗信念的思考者。
Wonder: The feeling of amazement and curiosity that, according to Aristotle, is the starting point of all philosophy.
惊奇：一种惊叹与好奇的感受，亚里士多德认为它是一切哲学的起点。
2. Branches of Philosophy | 哲学的主要分支
Metaphysics: The branch that investigates the nature of existence itself, asking 'What is there?' and 'What is it like?' It covers topics like being, time, space and causality.
形而上学：探究存在本身之本质的分支，问“有什么存在？”以及“存在的本性如何？”涉及存有、时间、空间和因果等主题。
Epistemology: The study of knowledge and justified belief. It asks 'What can we know?' and 'How do we know it?'
认识论：研究知识与确证信念的学问，问“我们能知道什么？”以及“我们如何知道？”
Ethics: Also called moral philosophy, this branch examines questions of right and wrong, good and bad, and how we ought to live.
伦理学：也称为道德哲学，该分支探讨对与错、好与坏以及我们应当如何生活的问题。
Logic: The study of correct reasoning and the rules for constructing and evaluating arguments.
逻辑学：研究正确推理以及构建和评价论证之规则的学问。
Aesthetics: The branch concerned with the nature of beauty, art and taste, asking 'What makes something beautiful?'
美学：关注美、艺术和品味的本质的分支，问“是什么让某物成为美的？”
3. The Structure of Arguments | 论证的结构
Argument: In philosophy, an argument is not a quarrel but a set of statements where some (premises) are offered as reasons to support another statement (the conclusion).
论证：在哲学中，论证不是争吵，而是一组陈述，其中一些陈述（前提）被用来作为支持另一陈述（结论）的理由。
Premise: A statement in an argument that provides a reason or evidence for accepting the conclusion.
前提：论证中为接受结论提供理由或证据的陈述。
Conclusion: The statement in an argument that the premises are intended to support or prove.
结论：论证中前提旨在支持或证明的那个陈述。
Validity: An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises — if the premises were true, the conclusion would have to be true.
有效性：如果结论能够从前提中逻辑地推出，即若前提为真则结论必然为真，该论证就是有效的。
Soundness: A sound argument is one that is both valid and has all true premises. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.
可靠性：一个可靠论证既有效又拥有全真前提。可靠的论证确保结论为真。
4. Knowledge and Belief | 知识与信念
Knowledge: Traditionally defined as 'justified true belief'. You know something when you believe it, it is true, and you have good reasons (justification) for holding that belief.
知识：传统上被定义为“被确证的真信念”。你知道某事，意味着你相信它、它是真的，并且你有充分的理由（确证）持有该信念。
Belief: A mental attitude of acceptance that a claim is true. You can believe something without knowing it, if it turns out to be false or lacks justification.
信念：一种接受某个断言为真的心理态度。如果某事最终是假的或缺乏确证，你可能相信它但并非知道它。
Opinion: A personal view or judgment that may not be based on full evidence or proof, and can differ from person to person.
意见：一种个人观点或判断，可能并不基于完整证据或证明，并且因人而异。
Truth: In philosophy, truth is often understood as correspondence with reality — a statement is true if it describes things as they actually are.
真理：在哲学中，真理通常被理解为与实在相符合——如果一个陈述如其所是地描述了事物，它就是真的。
Evidence: Information or facts that support a belief or indicate whether a proposition is true or false.
证据：支持某一信念或表明一个命题真假的信息或事实。
5. Ways of Knowing: Rationalism and Empiricism | 认识方式：理性论与经验论
Rationalism: The view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and some ideas or truths can be known independently of sense experience (e.g. mathematics). Key figures include Descartes.
理性论：认为理性是知识的主要来源，某些观念或真理可以独立于感觉经验而被认识（如数学）。代表人物有笛卡尔。
Empiricism: The view that all knowledge ultimately comes from sensory experience. The mind starts as a 'blank slate' (tabula rasa) and gains ideas through seeing, hearing, touching, etc. Key thinkers include Locke and Hume.
经验论：认为所有知识最终都来自感官经验。心灵开始时是一块“白板”（tabula rasa），通过看、听、触等获得观念。代表人物有洛克和休谟。
Scepticism: The attitude of doubting knowledge claims. A sceptic questions whether we can ever be completely certain about what we think we know.
怀疑论：对知识声称持怀疑态度的立场。怀疑论者质疑我们是否能对自以为知道的东西完全确定。
A Priori: Knowledge that is gained independently of experience, using reason alone — for example, knowing that all bachelors are unmarried.
先天知识：独立于经验、仅凭理性获得的知识——例如，知道所有单身汉都未婚。
A Posteriori: Knowledge that depends on or is gained through experience — for example, knowing that it is raining outside by looking.
后天知识：依赖于或通过经验获得的知识——例如，通过看窗外知道天在下雨。
6. Ethics: Right and Wrong | 伦理学：对与错
Morality: A system of principles and values concerning the distinction between right and wrong behaviour, good and bad character.
道德：一套关于行为对错、品格好坏之区分的原则和价值体系。
Moral Dilemma: A situation where a person must choose between two or more conflicting moral principles, and no option seems completely right (e.g. the Trolley Problem).
道德困境：一个人必须在两个或多个冲突的道德原则之间做出选择，且似乎没有任何选项是完全正确的情境（例如电车难题）。
Utilitarianism: An ethical theory stating that the best action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure and minimises suffering for the greatest number. Associated with Bentham and Mill.
功利主义：一种伦理理论，主张最好的行为是能为最大多数人带来最大幸福或快乐并将痛苦减至最低的行为。与边沁和密尔相关。
Deontology: An ethical theory that judges actions based on rules and duties rather than consequences. Some acts are morally wrong regardless of their outcomes. Key thinker: Kant.
义务论：一种基于规则和义务而非后果来判断行为的伦理理论。某些行为无论其结果如何，在道德上都是错误的。代表人物：康德。
Virtue Ethics: An approach focusing on the development of good character traits (virtues) like honesty, courage and compassion, rather than on rules or consequences. Key thinker: Aristotle.
德性伦理学：关注培养诚实、勇敢、同情等良好品格特质（德性）而非规则或后果的伦理进路。代表人物：亚里士多德。
7. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free Will: The idea that human beings are able to make genuinely free choices that are not entirely determined by prior causes. It is often linked to moral responsibility.
自由意志：认为人类能够做出并非完全由先前原因决定的真正自由选择的观点。它常与道德责任相关联。
Determinism: The theory that all events, including human actions and choices, are ultimately determined by previously existing causes. Every event has a cause, making free choice an illusion.
决定论：认为所有事件，包括人类行为和选择，最终都由先前存在的原因所决定的理论。每个事件都有原因，从而使得自由选择成为一种幻象。
Compatibilism: The position that free will and determinism can coexist. Freedom is understood as acting according to one's own desires without external coercion, even if those desires are themselves caused.
相容论：认为自由意志与决定论可以共存的立场。自由被理解为按照自己的欲望行动而没有外部强迫，即使这些欲望本身是被引起的。
Moral Responsibility: The status of deserving praise or blame for an action. Many argue that without free will, moral responsibility would not make sense.
道德责任：指因某个行为而应得赞扬或责备的状态。许多人认为，如果没有自由意志，道德责任就毫无意义。
8. Mind and Body | 心灵与身体
Dualism: The view that the mind and the body are two fundamentally different kinds of substances. The mind is non-physical and conscious, while the body is physical. Defended by Descartes.
二元论：认为心灵与身体是两种根本不同实体的观点。心灵是非物质的、有意识的，而身体是物质的。由笛卡尔捍卫。
Materialism: The theory that everything that exists is made of physical matter, and mental states are simply brain states. There is no separate non-physical soul.
唯物主义：认为存在的一切都是由物质构成的，心理状态不过是大脑状态的理论。不存在独立的非物质灵魂。
Identity Theory: A form of materialism claiming that mental states are identical to brain processes — pain just is a certain pattern of neurons firing.
同一论：唯物主义的一种形式，主张心理状态与大脑过程完全相同——疼痛只不过是一种特定的神经元放电模式。
Consciousness: The subjective experience of being aware of oneself and the world — the 'what it is like' to be a person or an animal. It is often called the 'hard problem' of philosophy.
意识：对自己和世界觉知的主观体验——即作为一个人或动物“是什么感受”。它常被称为哲学的“困难问题”。
9. Truth and Reality | 真理与实在
Realism: The view that the external world exists independently of our minds and perceptions. Tables, trees and stars are really there, whether or not we observe them.
实在论：认为外部世界独立于我们的心灵和知觉而存在的观点。桌子、树木和星辰确实存在，无论我们是否观察它们。
Idealism: The philosophical theory that reality is fundamentally mental or mind-dependent. Physical objects exist only as ideas perceived by minds. Associated with Berkeley.
观念论：认为实在从根本上说是精神的或依赖于心灵的理论。物理对象只作为被心灵感知的观念而存在。代表人物有贝克莱。
Perception: The process by which we become aware of the world through our senses. Philosophers ask how reliable perception is and whether we perceive things as they truly are.
知觉：我们通过感官觉知世界的过程。哲学家追问知觉有多可靠，以及我们是否如其所是地感知事物。
Appearance vs Reality: The distinction between how things seem to us and how they actually are. A stick in water appears bent, but in reality it is straight.
表象与实在：事物向我们显现的样子与其实际样子之间的区分。水中木棍看起来是弯的，但实际上它是直的。
10. Logical Fallacies | 常见逻辑谬误
Fallacy: A flaw or error in reasoning that weakens an argument. Fallacies often appear persuasive but fail under logical scrutiny.
谬误：削弱论证的推理缺陷或错误。谬误往往表面上很有说服力，但在逻辑考察下站不住脚。
Ad Hominem: Latin for 'to the person'. Attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself. Example: 'You can't trust her idea because she's too young.'
人身攻击：拉丁语意为“针对人”。攻击提出论证的人而非处理论证本身。例如：“你不能信她的主意，因为她太年轻。”
Straw Man: Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Instead of engaging with the real claim, you knock down a flimsy version of it.
稻草人：歪曲某人的论证以使其更容易攻击。你并不回应对方真正的论点，而是打到一个脆弱扭曲的版本。
False Dilemma: Presenting only two options when more exist, forcing a choice between extremes. 'Either you are with us, or you are against us.'
虚假两难：当存在更多选项时只呈现两种，逼迫人们在极端间做选择。“要么支持我们，要么反对我们。”
Slippery Slope: Arguing that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of extreme negative consequences, without providing evidence for such a chain.
滑坡谬误：主张相对较小的第一步将不可阻挡地导致一连串极端负面后果，却没有为这种连锁反应提供证据。
11. Key Philosophical Thinkers | 重要哲学思想家简介
Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE): An ancient Greek philosopher who used questioning (the Socratic method) to examine ideas and encourage critical thinking. He famously claimed that 'the unexamined life is not worth living.'
苏格拉底（约公元前470–399年）：古希腊哲学家，运用提问（苏格拉底方法）来审视观念并激发批判性思考。他有句名言：“未经审视的人生不值得过。”
Plato (c. 428-348 BCE): A student of Socrates, he wrote philosophical dialogues and developed the Theory of Forms, suggesting that the physical world is a shadow of a higher, unchanging reality.
柏拉图（约公元前428–348年）：苏格拉底的学生，写作哲学对话录并提出理型论，认为物质世界是更高、不变实在的阴影。
Aristotle (384-322 BCE): A student of Plato who emphasised observation and logic. He made foundational contributions to ethics, metaphysics, biology and political theory.
亚里士多德（公元前384–322年）：柏拉图的学生，强调观察与逻辑。他在伦理学、形而上学、生物学和政治理论方面做出了奠基性贡献。
Descartes (1596-1650): A French philosopher and mathematician, known for 'I think, therefore I am' (Cogito, ergo sum) and for his dualist view of mind and body.
笛卡尔（1596–1650年）：法国哲学家和数学家，以“我思故我在”（Cogito, ergo sum）及其身心二元论闻名。
Kant (1724-1804): A German thinker who developed deontological ethics, where actions are judged by whether they follow universal moral laws (the Categorical Imperative).
康德（1724–1804年）：德国思想家，发展了义务论伦理学，主张根据行为是否遵循普遍道德律（定言命令）来评判行为。
12. Tips for Memorising Philosophical Terms | 记忆哲学术语的小贴士
Make flashcards: Write the English term on one side and the Chinese definition plus an example on the other. Use them for quick recall drills.
制作抽认卡：一面写英文术语，另一面写中文定义和一个例句。用它们进行快速回想训练。
Create mnemonic stories: Link a term to a vivid image — for instance, picture 'Plato pointing to a Form in the sky' to remember his Theory of Forms.
编写记忆故事：把术语和一个生动的形象联系起来——比如，想象“柏拉图指向天空中的一个理型”，以记住他的理型论。
Explain aloud: Teach each concept to a friend or even an imaginary audience in your own words. Explaining cements understanding.
大声讲解：用自己的话把每个概念教给朋友甚或想象中的听众。讲解能巩固理解。
Draw concept maps: Visually connect branches, terms and thinkers to see how ideas relate. This helps move beyond rote memorisation to genuine comprehension.
绘制概念图：将分支、术语和思想家用图形连接起来，看清观念之间的关联。这有助于超越死记硬背，达到真正理解。
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