📚 Year 7 AQA Biology Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | 七年级 AQA 生物：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your quick reference handbook for Year 7 AQA Biology. This guide brings together the essential formulas, equations, and core principles you will encounter in the Key Stage 3 curriculum. Each section presents key ideas in a clear, bilingual format to help you master both the science and the language. Keep this handbook handy as you explore cells, energy, genetics, and ecosystems.
欢迎使用七年级 AQA 生物公式定理速查手册。本指南汇集了你在关键阶段 3 课程中会遇到的核心公式、方程式和基本原理。每个部分以清晰的双语形式呈现关键概念，帮助你同时掌握科学内容和学科语言。在探索细胞、能量、遗传和生态系统时，请随时查阅这本手册。
1. Photosynthesis Equation | 光合作用方程
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. Chlorophyll in chloroplasts absorbs the light needed for this reaction. The balanced symbol equation is shown below.
光合作用是绿色植物和某些其他生物利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气的过程。叶绿体中的叶绿素吸收该反应所需的光能。以下为平衡符号方程。
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
光合作用的平衡化学方程式为：
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
lucose + oxygen, with light energy shown above the arrow. Remember that glucose is a simple sugar that the plant uses for energy and growth, while oxygen is released as a by‑product.
文字方程式概括了相同的反应：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气，箭头上方标明光能。记住，葡萄糖是植物用于能量和生长的简单糖类，而氧气则作为副产品释放出来。
2. Aerobic Respiration Equation | 有氧呼吸方程
Aerobic respiration is the chemical reaction that releases energy from glucose using oxygen. It takes place continuously in the mitochondria of almost all living cells. The balanced symbol equation mirrors photosynthesis but releases energy instead of storing it.
有氧呼吸是利用氧气从葡萄糖中释放能量的化学反应。它几乎在所有活细胞的线粒体中持续进行。其平衡符号方程与光合作用互为镜像，但释放能量而非储存能量。
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
有氧呼吸的平衡化学方程式为：
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
eleased in the form of ATP to power processes such as muscle contraction, cell division and maintaining body temperature.
文字方程式为：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水。能量以 ATP 的形式释放，用于肌肉收缩、细胞分裂和维持体温等过程。
3. Anaerobic Respiration Equations | 无氧呼吸方程
When oxygen is limited, cells can respire anaerobically. This releases less energy than aerobic respiration and produces different end products depending on the organism. In animal muscle cells, glucose is converted into lactic acid.
当氧气不足时，细胞可进行无氧呼吸。与有氧呼吸相比，它释放的能量较少，并且根据生物体的不同产生不同的终产物。在动物肌肉细胞中，葡萄糖被转化为乳酸。
C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₃H₆O₃
动物无氧呼吸：
C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₃H₆O₃
ord equation for animal anaerobic respiration is: glucose → lactic acid. Lactic acid build‑ yeast and some plants, anaerobic respiration produces ethanol and carbon dioxide instead.
动物无氧呼吸的文字方程式为：葡萄糖 → 乳酸。乳酸的积累会导致肌肉疲劳和痉挛。在酵母和某些植物中，无氧呼吸则产生乙醇和二氧化碳。
C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂
酵母的无氧呼吸（发酵）：
C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂
This process is exploited in baking and brewing; the carbon dioxide makes dough rise, while ethanol is the alcohol in beer and wine.
这一过程被用于烘焙和酿造；二氧化碳使面团膨胀，而乙醇则是啤酒和葡萄酒中的酒精。
4. Magnification Formula | 放大倍率公式
When using a microscope, you often need to calculate the real size of an object from its image. The magnification formula allows you to convert between image size and actual size. Always ensure that both measurements are in the same unit before calculating.
使用显微镜时，你经常需要根据图像计算物体的实际大小。放大倍率公式可用于在图像尺寸和实际尺寸之间进行换算。计算前务必确保两个测量值的单位一致。
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
放大倍率公式：
放大倍率 = 图像尺寸 ÷ 实际尺寸
r image size, M for magnification and A for actual size. Units often include micrometres (µm), millimetres (mm) and centimetres (cm). Remember: 1 mm = 1000 µm, 1 cm = 10 mm.
你可以重新排列三角关系：I = M × A 以及 A = I ÷ M。其中 I 代表图像尺寸，M 代表放大倍率，A 代表实际尺寸。常用单位包括微米 (µm)、毫米 (mm) 和厘米 (cm)。记住：1 mm = 1000 µm，1 cm = 10 mm。
5. Energy Transfer in Food Chains | 食物链能量传递
Energy flows through an ecosystem from producers to consumers. At each trophic level, a large proportion of energy is lost through respiration, heat, waste and uneaten parts. Typically, only about 10% of the energy is transferred to the next level.
能量通过生态系统从生产者流向消费者。在每一营养级，大部分能量通过呼吸作用、散热、排泄物和未被取食的部分而损失。通常，只有约 10% 的能量传递到下一营养级。
Efficiency (%) = (Energy in lower level ÷ Energy in higher level) × 100
能量传递效率（通常约 10%）：
效率 (%) = (下一营养级能量 ÷ 上一营养级能量) × 100
This 10% rule explains why food chains rarely have more than four or five trophic levels: there simply is not enough energy to support another large population of predators. Pyramids of biomass and pyramids of numbers help visualise these losses.
这一 10% 定律解释了为何食物链很少超过四到五个营养级：根本没有足够的能量来支撑另一个庞大的捕食者种群。生物量金字塔和数量金字塔有助于可视化这些损失。
6. Population Change Formula | 种群数量变化公式
igration. A simple word equation captures this: population change = (births + immigration) – ion). Immigration means organisms moving into the population, emigration means moving out.
一个区域的种群规模会因出生、死亡和迁移而随时间变化。一个简单的文字公式可以概括：种群变化 = (出生数 + 迁入数) – (死亡数 + 迁出数)。迁入指生物进入种群，迁出指生物离开种群。
ΔN = (B + I) – (D + E)
种群变化公式的符号表示：
ΔN = (B + I) – (D + E)
Here ΔN represents the net change in population size, B is births, D is deaths, I is immigration, and E is emigration. When the result is positive, the population grows; when negative, it shrinks. Biologists use this to model predator‑prey relationships and human populations.
其中 ΔN 代表种群规模的净变化，B 为出生数，D 为死亡数，I 为迁入数，E 为迁出数。结果为正时，种群增长；为负时，种群缩小。生物学家用此来模拟捕食者‑猎物关系以及人口变化。
7. Surface Area to Volume Ratio | 表面积与体积比
The surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) is crucial for understanding how easily substances can move into or out of a cell or organism. As an object gets larger, its volume increases much faster than its surface area, causing SA:V to decrease. This limits cell size and drives adaptations such as folded membranes.
表面积与体积比 (SA:V) 对于理解物质进出细胞或生物体的难易程度至关重要。随着物体增大，其体积增长远快于表面积，导致 SA:V 下降。这限制了细胞的大小，并推动了如膜褶皱等适应性变化。
SA:V = Surface area ÷ Volume
表面积与体积比的计算：
SA:V = 表面积 ÷ 体积
V of 6:1, while a 3 cm cube has an SA:V of 2:1. High SA:V allows efficient diffusion; specialised exchange surfaces in lungs, gills and leaves increase effective surface area.
对于一个立方体，表面积 = 6 × 边长²，体积 = 边长³。因此，边长 1 cm 的立方体 SA:V 为 6:1，而边长 3 cm 的立方体 SA:V 为 2:1。高 SA:V 允许高效扩散；肺、鳃和叶中的特化交换表面增加了有效的表面积。
8. Enzyme Activity & Temperature (Q₁₀) | 酶活性与温度系数 (Q₁₀)
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being used up. Their activity is affected by temperature and pH. The temperature coefficient Q₁₀ indicates how much the rate of a reaction increases with a 10°C rise in temperature.
酶是生物催化剂，能加速反应而自身不被消耗。其活性受温度和 pH 影响。温度系数 Q₁₀ 表示温度每升高 10°C，反应速率增加的倍数。
Q₁₀ = Rate at (T + 10°C) ÷ Rate at T
Q₁₀ 公式：
Q₁₀ = (T + 10°C 时的速率) ÷ T 时的速率
For many enzyme‑controlled reactions, Q₁₀ is around 2 between 0°C and 40°C, meaning the rate roughly doubles for each 10°C rise. Beyond the optimum temperature (often 37°C in humans), enzymes denature, the active site loses its shape, and the rate falls sharply.
在许多酶促反应中，0°C 至 40°C 之间 Q₁₀ 约为 2，意味着温度每升高 10°C 速率大约翻倍。超过最适温度（人类约为 37°C），酶变性，活性位点形状丧失，反应速率急剧下降。
9. Genetic Crosses: Monohybrid Ratio | 单基因杂交比率
Gregor Mendel’s work established the fundamental rules of inheritance. When a pure‑breeding dominant parent (BB) is crossed with a pure‑breeding recessive parent (bb), all offspring in the F₁ generation are heterozygous (Bb) and show the dominant trait. Self‑pollinating the F₁ generation produces an F₂ generation with a characteristic ratio.
孟德尔的实验确立了遗传的基本规律。当纯合显性亲本 (BB) 与纯合隐性亲本 (bb) 杂交时，F₁ 代所有后代均为杂合子 (Bb) 并表现显性性状。将 F₁ 代自交产生的 F₂ 代具有特征比例。
Phenotypic ratio: 3 dominant : 1 recessive
表现型比例：
表现型比例：3 显性 : 1 隐性
Genotypically, the F₂ ratio is 1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb. Punnett squares are the standard tool to predict these ratios. Remember that these ratios are probabilities and may not be exact in small sample sizes.
在基因型上，F₂ 比例为 1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb。庞纳特方格是预测这些比例的标准工具。记住，这些比例是概率，在小样本中可能不精确。
10. Biomass and Trophic Levels | 生物量与营养级
Biomass is the total mass of living material in an organism or a trophic level, usually measured as dry mass after removing all water. Pyramids of biomass show the mass of producers at the base and increasingly smaller masses at higher trophic levels, reflecting energy losses.
生物量是指生物体或营养级中活物质的总质量，通常以去除所有水分后的干重来衡量。生物量金字塔显示生产者位于底部质量最大，越高的营养级质量越小，反映了能量的损失。
Biomass = number of organisms × average dry mass per organism
生物量估算：
生物量 = 生物个体数 × 每生物的平均干重
Calculating biomass helps ecologists compare productivity across different habitats. Because roughly 90% of energy is lost between trophic levels, the biomass decreases by a similar factor. This relationship underpins sustainable farming, fishing quotas and understanding of ecological balance.
计算生物量有助于生态学家比较不同栖息地的生产力。因为营养级之间大约损失 90% 的能量，生物量也以相似的系数递减。这一关系是可持续农业、渔业配额和理解生态平衡的基础。
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