📚 GCSE Science: Quick Revision with Mind Maps | GCSE科学：思维导图速记
Mind maps transform scattered facts into organised webs, making it easier to spot links and lock them into long-term memory. This article breaks the GCSE Science syllabus into twelve manageable branches, each presented as a compact set of idea nodes. Use these as a template for your own visual summaries.
思维导图把零散的知识点变成有组织的网络，让你更容易发现联系并牢牢记住它们。本文把 GCSE 科学大纲拆分为十二个可管理的分支，每个分支都以一组精简的概念节点呈现。你可以把这些内容当作模板，制作你自己的视觉化总结。
1. Cell Biology | 细胞生物学
All living things are built from cells. The two main cell types are eukaryotic (with a nucleus) and prokaryotic (without a nucleus).
所有生物都由细胞构成。细胞主要分为两大类：真核细胞（有细胞核）和原核细胞（无细胞核）。
Eukaryotic cells include animal, plant and fungal cells; they contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and a nucleus holding DNA.
真核细胞包括动物、植物和真菌细胞；它们含有由膜包裹的细胞器，例如线粒体和储存 DNA 的细胞核。
Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) lack a nucleus; DNA floats as a loop in the cytoplasm, and they often have plasmids.
原核细胞（细菌）没有细胞核；DNA 以环状形式漂浮在细胞质中，往往还带有质粒。
Plant cells have three extra structures: a rigid cellulose cell wall, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
植物细胞有三个特有的结构：坚硬的纤维素细胞壁、一个中央大液泡以及进行光合作用的叶绿体。
Specialised cells, e.g. sperm, nerve and root hair cells, are adapted for their functions through shape and organelle changes.
特化细胞如精子、神经细胞和根毛细胞，通过改变形状和细胞器数量来适应其功能。
image ÷ size of real object; light microscopes can view nuclei, electron microscopes reveal ribosomes.
显微技术：放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小；光学显微镜能看到细胞核，电子显微镜可以观察到核糖体。
Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells and is used for growth and repair.
有丝分裂产生两个遗传物质相同的子细胞，用于生长和修复。
Stem cells can differentiate into many cell types; embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, while adult stem cells are multipotent.
干细胞可以分化成多种细胞类型；胚胎干细胞是多能性的，而成体干细胞是专能性的。
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to low concentration; osmosis is the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动；渗透则是水通过半透膜的扩散。
Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient, using energy from respiration.
主动运输逆浓度梯度移动物质，需要消耗呼吸作用提供的能量。
2. Organisation: Tissues, Organs and Systems | 组织：组织、器官和系统
A tissue is a group of similar cells working together; organs are made of different tissues; organ systems carry out whole-body functions.
组织是一群相似的细胞共同工作；器官由不同的组织构成；器官系统执行全身性的功能。
The digestive system breaks down large insoluble molecules into small soluble ones. Enzymes are biological catalysts – amylase breaks down starch, protease acts on proteins, lipase digests lipids.
消化系统将大分子不溶性物质分解为小分子可溶性物质。酶是生物催化剂——淀粉酶分解淀粉，蛋白酶作用于蛋白质，脂肪酶消化脂类。
Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fats and provides alkaline conditions for enzymes in the small intestine.
胆汁由肝脏产生并储存在胆囊，能乳化脂肪，并为小肠中的酶提供碱性条件。
Blood is a tissue containing plasma, red blood cells (carry oxygen via haemoglobin), white blood cells (defence) and platelets (clotting).
血液是一种组织，包含血浆、红细胞（通过血红蛋白运输氧气）、白细胞（防御）和血小板（凝血）。
The heart is a double pump: right side sends blood to the lungs, left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body. Valves prevent backflow.
心脏是一个双泵：右侧将血液送往肺部，左侧将富氧血泵向全身。瓣膜防止血液倒流。
Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure; veins return blood to the heart and have valves; capillaries allow substance exchange.
动脉在高压下将血液带离心脏；静脉将血液送回心脏并具有瓣膜；毛细血管进行物质交换。
In plants, xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves; phloem translocates dissolved sugars. Transpiration is driven by evaporation through stomata.
在植物中，木质部将水和矿物质从根部运到叶片；韧皮部运输溶解的糖。蒸腾作用由叶片气孔的水分蒸发驱动。
3. Infection and Response | 感染与免疫反应
Pathogens are microorganisms that cause disease. They include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists.
病原体是引起疾病的微生物，包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。
Viruses invade cells and reproduce inside them, e.g. measles, HIV, tobacco mosaic virus.
病毒侵入细胞并在其内部繁殖，例如麻疹病毒、HIV、烟草花叶病毒。
Bacteria produce toxins that damage cells, e.g. Salmonella, gonorrhoea.
细菌产生毒素损害细胞，例如沙门氏菌和淋病奈瑟菌。
Fungal diseases like rose black spot destroy leaves; protists such as the Plasmodium parasite cause malaria.
真菌病如玫瑰黑斑病破坏叶片；原生生物如疟原虫引起疟疾。
The body's first line of defence includes the skin, mucus, cilia and stomach acid.
人体的第一道防线包括皮肤、粘液、纤毛和胃酸。
White blood cells defend by phagocytosis (engulfing pathogens), producing antibodies that lock onto antigens, and releasing antitoxins to neutralise toxins.
白细胞的防御方式有：吞噬作用（吞噬病原体）、产生与抗原结合的抗体，以及释放抗毒素中和毒素。
Vaccination introduces a harmless form of a pathogen, triggering antibody production and memory cells, so the real pathogen is tackled quickly.
疫苗接种引入无害的病原体形式，激发抗体产生和记忆细胞，因此当真正的病原体入侵时会被迅速消灭。
Antibiotics kill bacteria but not viruses. Overuse has led to antibiotic-resistant strains, such as MRSA.
抗生素能杀死细菌但对病毒无效。滥用抗生素导致耐药菌株的出现，如 MRSA。
New drugs are tested for efficacy and safety; preclinical tests use cells and animals; clinical trials involve healthy volunteers and patients.
新药需要检验有效性和安全性；临床前测试使用细胞和动物；临床试验涉及健康志愿者和患者。
4. Bioenergetics: Photosynthesis and Respiration | 生物能学：光合作用与呼吸作用
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose; respiration releases energy from glucose to fuel life processes.
光合作用将光能转化为储存在葡萄糖中的化学能；呼吸作用从葡萄糖中释放能量，驱动生命活动。
synthesis: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (using light energy and chlorophyll).
光合作用的文字方程式：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气（需要光能和叶绿素）。
Limiting factors include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature; the factor in shortest supply limits the rate.
限制因素包括光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度；供应量最不足的那个因素会限制光合作用的速率。
arbon dioxide + water, releasing a large amount of energy. It takes place in mitochondria.
有氧呼吸：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水，释放大量能量。该过程发生在线粒体中。
asing less energy. In yeast and plants: glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (fermentation).
肌肉中的无氧呼吸：葡萄糖 → 乳酸，释放较少能量。在酵母和植物中：葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + 二氧化碳（发酵）。
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body, including synthesis of new molecules and breakdown of substrates.
代谢是体内所有化学反应的总和，包括新分子的合成和底物的分解。
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table | 原子结构与元素周期表
All matter is made of atoms containing a tiny, dense nucleus (protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons arranged in shells.
所有物质由原子构成，原子含有一个微小致密的原子核（质子和中子），核外电子分层排布。
rotons + neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic number but different numbers of neutrons.
原子序数 = 质子数；质量数 = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素的原子序数相同，但中子数不同。
Electrons occupy shells (2,8,8...); the group number gives the number of outer shell electrons for main-group elements.
电子按壳层排布（2,8,8...）；主族元素的族数等于其最外层电子数。
The Periodic Table is arranged by increasing atomic number. Periods are rows; groups are columns with similar chemical properties.
元素周期表按原子序数递增排列。周期是横排；族是纵栏，同族元素具有相似的化学性质。
Group 1 – Alkali metals: soft, react vigorously with water producing hydrogen and a metal hydroxide, reactivity increases down the group.
第 1 族——碱金属：质软，与水剧烈反应产生氢气和金属氢氧化物，反应性沿族向下增强。
Group 7 – Halogens: non-metals, diatomic molecules, reactivity decreases down the group. A more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive one from its salt.
第 7 族——卤素：非金属，双原子分子，反应性沿族向下减弱。活泼的卤素能将较不活泼的卤素从其盐溶液中置换出来。
Group 0 – Noble gases: unreactive due to full outer shells. Boiling points increase down the group.
第 0 族——稀有气体：因最外层电子已满而不易反应。沸点沿族向下升高。
Transition metals are typical metals: hard, high melting points, often form coloured compounds and act as catalysts.
过渡金属是典型金属：硬度大，熔点高，常形成有色化合物并用作催化剂。
6. Bonding and Structure | 键合与结构
Atoms bond to gain a full outer shell of electrons, giving three types of bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic. The structure then determines bulk properties.
原子通过键合达到最外层电子满壳，形成三种键合类型：离子键、共价键和金属键。结构决定了物质的宏观性质。
Ionic bonding: transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal, forming oppositely charged ions held in a giant lattice. High melting points, conduct electricity when molten or dissolved.
离子键：电子从金属转移到非金属，形成带相反电荷的离子，组成巨型晶格。熔点高，熔融态或溶于水时能导电。
Covalent bonding: sharing of electron pairs between non-metal atoms. Simple molecular substances (H₂O, CO₂) have low melting points; giant covalent structures (diamond, SiO₂) are very hard with high melting points.
共价键：非金属原子间共用电子对。简单分子物质（H₂O, CO₂）熔点低；巨型共价结构（金刚石, SiO₂）极硬且熔点很高。
Graphite is a giant covalent structure with layered hexagonal rings; weak forces between layers allow them to slide, making it a lubricant, and delocalised electrons enable conductivity.
石墨是层状六元环巨型共价结构；层间弱力使其可以滑动，因此可作润滑剂，而离域电子使其能导电。
Metallic bonding: positive metal ions in a 'sea' of delocalised electrons. This gives high melting points and good electrical/thermal conductivity; the layers of ions can slide past each other, making metals malleable.
金属键：正金属离子沉浸在“离域电子海”中。这赋予金属高熔点、良好的导电导热性；离子层可以相互滑动，使金属有延展性。
Nanoparticles have dimensions 1–100 nm and a large surface area to volume ratio, giving different properties from bulk materials.
纳米粒子的尺寸在 1–100 nm 之间，表面积与体积之比较大，因此具有不同于块体材料的性质。
7. Chemical Reactions | 化学反应
Chemical reactions rearrange atoms; the total mass stays the same. Equations must be balanced to reflect this conservation of mass.
化学反应只是原子重排；总质量保持不变。化学方程式必须配平来体现质量守恒。
The reactivity series arranges metals by how easily they form positive ions: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold. A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from a compound.
金属活动性顺序按形成正离子的容易程度排列：钾、钠、钙、镁、铝、锌、铁、铜、银、金。较活泼的金属能把较不活泼的金属从其化合物中置换出来。
Carbon can be used to extract metals below it in the series by reduction; electrolysis is needed for more reactive metals like aluminium.
碳可用于还原在活动性顺序中位于它下方的金属；如铝等更活泼的金属则需要用电解法提取。
Oxidation is loss of electrons; reduction is gain of electrons (OIL RIG). In terms of oxygen, oxidation is gain of oxygen, reduction is loss of oxygen.
氧化是失电子，还原是得电子（OIL RIG）。从氧的角度，氧化是得氧，还原是失氧。
+ carbonates → salt + water + carbon dioxide. Neutralisation: acid + base → salt + water.
酸 + 金属 → 盐 + 氢气。酸 + 碳酸盐 → 盐 + 水 + 二氧化碳。中和反应：酸 + 碱 → 盐 + 水。
The pH scale (0–14) measures acidity; pH < 7 acidic, pH 7 neutral, pH > 7 alkaline. Universal indicator gives a colour range.
pH 标度（0–14）衡量酸碱度；pH < 7 酸性，pH = 7 中性，pH > 7 碱性。通用指示剂显示一系列颜色变化。
Electrolysis splits compounds using direct current. In molten ionic compounds, positive ions move to the cathode, negative ions to the anode. In aqueous solutions, the halide rule and hydroxide competition determine products.
电解利用直流电分解化合物。在熔融态离子化合物中，阳离子移向阴极，阴离子移向阳极。在水溶液中，卤素离子的放电顺序和氢氧根离子的竞争决定产物。
8. Energy Changes in Reactions | 反应中的能量变化
Reactions either release heat (exothermic) or absorb heat (endothermic). Energy level diagrams show the difference in stored chemical energy.
反应要么放热（放热反应），要么吸热（吸热反应）。能级图展示了化学能储存量的差异。
Exothermic reactions: energy is transferred to the surroundings, temperature rises. Examples: combustion, neutralisation, respiration.
放热反应：能量转移到环境，温度上升。例子：燃烧、中和反应、呼吸作用。
Endothermic reactions: energy is taken in from the surroundings, temperature falls. Examples: thermal decomposition, photosynthesis, sherbet dissolving.
吸热反应：从环境吸收能量，温度下降。例子：热分解、光合作用、柠檬冰沙溶解。
Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start a reaction. Catalysts provide an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy.
活化能是启动反应所需的最小能量。催化剂提供一条活化能更低的替代路径。
. The overall energy change = total energy of bonds broken − total energy of bonds formed.
键能计算：断裂化学键吸收能量，为正值；形成化学键释放能量，为负值。总能量变化 = 断裂键的总键能 − 形成键的总键能。
9. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Forces are pushes or pulls measured in newtons (N). They can be contact forces (friction, tension) or non-contact forces (gravity, magnetism).
力是推或拉，单位为牛顿 (N)。力可以是接触力（摩擦力、张力）或非接触力（重力、磁力）。
Resultant force is the overall force acting on an object. If non-zero, it causes a change in speed or direction.
合力是作用在物体上所有力的总和。若合力不为零，物体的速度或方向将发生改变。
Newton's First Law: an object stays at rest or moves at constant velocity unless a resultant force acts on it.
牛顿第一定律：除非受到合力作用，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动状态。
Newton's Second Law:
F = m × a
— resultant force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²).牛顿第二定律：F = m × a —— 合力 (N) = 质量 (kg) × 加速度 (m/s²)。
Velocity-time graphs: gradient gives acceleration; area under graph gives displacement. A horizontal line means constant velocity.
速度-时间图：斜率表示加速度；图线下面积表示位移。水平线代表匀速运动。
ce + braking distance. Thinking distance is affected by speed and distractions; braking distance by speed, road conditions and tyre quality.
总停车距离 = 反应距离 + 刹车距离。反应距离受车速和注意力影响；刹车距离受车速、路面状况和轮胎质量影响。
lisions and explosions. In a closed system, total momentum before equals total momentum after.
动量（p = m × v）在碰撞和爆炸中守恒。在封闭系统中，碰撞前的总动量等于碰撞后的总动量。
10. Waves | 波
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. They are either transverse (oscillations perpendicular to direction of energy transfer) or longitudinal (parallel).
波传递能量而不传递物质。波可分为横波（振动方向与能量传递方向垂直）和纵波（振动方向与能量传递方向平行）。
Examples of transverse waves: light, water ripples, all electromagnetic waves. Longitudinal: sound waves, seismic P-waves.
横波的例子：光、水波和所有电磁波。纵波的例子：声波、地震 P 波。
Wave equation:
v = f × λ
— wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m).波动方程：v = f × λ —— 波速 (m/s) = 频率 (Hz) × 波长 (m)。
The electromagnetic spectrum (increasing frequency): Radio, Microwave, Infrared, Visible (Red to Violet), Ultraviolet, X-rays, Gamma rays. Higher frequency means more energy and greater danger.
电磁波谱（频率递增）：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光（红到紫）、紫外线、X 射线、伽马射线。频率越高，能量越大，危险性越高。
Uses: radio – broadcasting, microwave – cooking, infrared – thermal cameras, visible – seeing, ultraviolet – tanning, X-ray – medical imaging, gamma – cancer treatment.
应用：无线电波——广播通讯；微波——烹饪；红外线——热成像；可见光——视觉；紫外线——晒黑；X 射线——医学成像；伽马射线——癌症治疗。
le of reflection. Refraction: waves change speed and direction when crossing a boundary, described by ray diagrams.
反射：入射角等于反射角。折射：波穿过介质边界时速度与方向的改变，可用光线图表示。
Sound waves are mechanical, longitudinal waves that cannot travel through a vacuum. They are detected by converting vibrations into electrical signals in a microphone.
声波是机械纵波，不能在真空中
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