📚 GCSE WJEC Chemistry: Final Revision Checklist | GCSE WJEC 化学：期末复习提纲
This revision checklist covers the essential topics for the GCSE WJEC Chemistry specification. Use it to plan your final review, test your understanding of key concepts, and practise the types of calculations and practical knowledge that frequently appear in the exams. Work through each section methodically, checking off points as you master them.
这份复习提纲涵盖了 GCSE WJEC 化学考试大纲的核心主题。用它来规划期末复习，检验你对关键概念的理解，并练习考试中常见的计算和实验知识。按部就班地梳理每个部分，掌握一条勾掉一条，确保没有知识死角。
1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table | 原子结构与周期表
Atoms consist of a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons arranged in shells. You must be able to describe the relative charges and masses of these subatomic particles and explain why atoms are neutral overall.
原子由含质子和中子的中心原子核以及分层排布的电子组成。你必须能描述这些亚原子粒子的相对电荷与相对质量，并解释原子整体为什么呈电中性。
| Particle | Relative charge | Relative mass |
|---|---|---|
| Proton | +1 | 1 |
| Neutron | 0 | 1 |
| Electron | -1 | 1/1836 (negligible) |
The atomic (proton) number defines the element; the mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, hence different mass numbers. You should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) from isotopic abundances.
原子序数（质子数）定义了元素；质量数是质子数与中子数之和。同位素是同种元素中中子数不同、因而质量数不同的原子。你应该会利用同位素丰度计算相对原子质量（Aᵣ）。
Electrons occupy shells following the 2,8,8 rule for the first 20 elements. The electronic configuration determines the chemical properties of an element and its position in the Periodic Table: the group number equals the number of outer‑shell electrons for main‑group elements, and the period gives the number of occupied shells.
电子按照2,8,8的规律填充前20号元素的电子层。电子排布决定了元素的化学性质及其在周期表中的位置：对主族元素而言，族序数等于最外层电子数，周期数等于电子层数。
The Periodic Table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number. Metals are on the left, non‑metals on the right. Noble gases (Group 0) are unreactive because they have a full outer shell. Trends to revise include increasing reactivity down Group 1 (alkali metals), decreasing reactivity down Group 7 (halogens), and the transition from acidic to basic oxides across Period 3.
周期表按原子序数递增的顺序排列。金属位于左侧，非金属在右侧。稀有气体（0族）具有满壳层结构，因此不活泼。需要复习的变化趋势包括：第1族（碱金属）反应性从上到下增强，第7族（卤素）反应性从上到下减弱，以及在第三周期中氧化物从酸性到碱性的转变。
2. Bonding, Structure and Properties | 化学键、结构与性质
Ionic bonding forms between metals and non‑metals when electrons are transferred. The resulting ions are held in a giant ionic lattice by strong electrostatic forces. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity only when molten or dissolved because the ions become free to move.
离子键形成于金属与非金属之间，通过电子转移实现。生成的离子被强大的静电作用力束缚在巨型离子晶格中。离子化合物熔点、沸点高，仅在熔融或溶于水时导电，因为那时离子才可以自由移动。
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share pairs of electrons. Simple molecular substances such as H₂, H₂O and CO₂ have strong covalent bonds within their molecules but weak intermolecular forces, so they have low melting points and do not conduct electricity. Giant covalent structures (diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide) have an extended network of strong covalent bonds, giving them very high melting points. Graphite is an exception – it conducts electricity because each carbon atom contributes one delocalised electron.
共价键通过原子间共用电子对形成。简单分子物质如H₂、H₂O和CO₂，分子内共价键强，但分子间作用力弱，故熔沸点低且不导电。巨型共价结构（金刚石、石墨、二氧化硅）由连续的强共价键网络构成，熔沸点极高。石墨是个例外——它能导电，因为每个碳原子释放出一个离域电子。
Metallic bonding involves a regular lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons. This model explains the typical properties of metals: malleability, ductility, high electrical and thermal conductivity, and generally high melting points.
金属键是一种规则排列的正金属离子与周围“电子海”之间的静电作用。这一模型解释了金属的典型性质：可锻性、延展性、优良的导电导热性，以及通常较高的熔点。
Be able to compare the properties of these four structure types and link them to the particles and bonding present. Typical exam questions ask you to explain why diamond is hard while graphite is soft, or why ionic compounds are brittle but metals are ductile.
要求能够比较这四种结构类型的性质，并从粒子和成键方式的角度加以解释。典型的考题包括：为什么金刚石很硬而石墨很软，或为什么离子化合物脆而易碎但金属具有延展性。
3. Formulae, Equations and Quantitative Chemistry | 化学式、化学方程式与定量化学
You must write balanced chemical equations using correct state symbols: (s) solid, (l) liquid, (g) gas, (aq) aqueous. The relative formula mass (Mᵣ) of a compound is calculated by adding the relative atomic masses of all atoms in the formula.
你必须会书写配平的化学方程式，并正确使用状态符号：(s)固、(l)液、(g)气、(aq)水溶液。化合物的相对化学式质量（Mᵣ）是通过将化学式中所有原子的相对原子质量相加得到的。
les and the mass of one mole is its molar mass in grams per mole. The key relationship is:
摩尔概念是定量化学的核心。1 mol 物质含 6.02 × 10²³ 个粒子，其质量在数值上等于以 g/mol 为单位的摩尔质量。核心关系式为：
n = m / M
where n = amount (mol), m = mass (g), M = molar mass (g mol⁻¹).
其中 n 为物质的量（mol），m 为质量（g），M 为摩尔质量（g mol⁻¹）。
For gases, the molar volume at room temperature and pressure (RTP) is 24 dm³ mol⁻¹:
对于气体，常温常压下的摩尔体积为 24 dm³ mol⁻¹：
V (dm³) = n × 24
al yield) × 100; atom economy = (Mᵣ of desired product / sum of Mᵣ of all reactants) × 100. High atom economy reduces waste and makes processes more sustainable.
运用这些关系式计算反应质量、产率和原子经济。记忆：产率 = (实际产量/理论产量) × 100；原子经济性 = (目标产物的Mᵣ / 所有反应物的Mᵣ总和) × 100。高原子经济性可减少废弃物，使工艺更可持续。
Concentration of a solution is measured in mol dm⁻³ or g dm⁻³. You can calculate concentration from moles and volume, and convert between the two units using molar mass. Titration calculations require you to use concordant results and the balanced equation to find an unknown concentration.
溶液浓度的单位是 mol dm⁻³ 或 g dm⁻³。你能由物质的量和体积计算浓度，并能利用摩尔质量进行单位换算。滴定计算需要你运用相符的实验结果，结合配平的化学方程式求出未知浓度。
4. Acids, Bases and Salts | 酸、碱和盐
Acids produce H⁺ ions in aqueous solution; strong acids fully ionise (e.g., HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄) whereas weak acids only partially ionise (e.g., ethanoic acid). Bases neutralise acids, and soluble bases are called alkalis; they produce OH⁻ ions in water.
酸在水溶液中产生 H⁺；强酸完全电离（如 HCl、HNO₃、H₂SO₄），弱酸仅部分电离（如乙酸）。碱能中和酸，可溶性的碱称为碱，它在水中产生 OH⁻。
The pH scale (0– ns: acid + alkali → salt + water; acid + metal → salt + hydrogen; acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.
pH 标度（0–14）用来衡量酸碱度：pH 越小，H⁺ 浓度越高。通用指示剂呈现不同颜色。你需要记住以下通式：酸 + 碱 → 盐 + 水；酸 + 金属 → 盐 + 氢气；酸 + 碳酸盐 → 盐 + 水 + 二氧化碳。
Preparing a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt from an insoluble base or carbonate involves adding excess solid to the acid, filtering off the excess, and evaporating the filtrate. For a soluble salt starting from an alkali, titration is used to find the exact volumes required, then the solution is evaporated without filtering.
从不溶性碱或碳酸盐制备纯净、干燥的可溶性盐样品，需要将过量固体加到酸中，过滤掉过量固体，再将滤液蒸发浓缩。若从碱出发制备可溶性盐，则需通过滴定确定精确体积，然后蒸发溶液而无需过滤。
Be familiar with the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation (mixing two suitable solutions, filtering, washing and drying the precipitate), and the use of barium chloride and silver nitrate tests for sulfate and halide ions.
熟悉通过沉淀法制备不溶性盐（混合两种合适溶液，过滤、洗涤、干燥沉淀），以及用氯化钡和硝酸银分别检验硫酸根离子和卤素离子的方法。
5. Electrolysis | 电解
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound using direct electric current. The compound must be molten or dissolved for the ions to move. The positive anode attracts anions (e.g., Cl⁻, O²⁻); the negative cathode attracts cations (e.g., Na⁺, Cu²⁺).
电解是利用直流电分解离子化合物的过程。化合物必须熔融或溶于水，以便离子自由移动。正极（阳极）吸引阴离子（如 Cl⁻、O²⁻）；负极（阴极）吸引阳离子（如 Na⁺、Cu²⁺）。
In the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, Pb²⁺ ions gain electrons at the cathode to form lead, while Br⁻ ions lose electrons at the anode to form bromine. In aqueous solutions, the products depend on the reactivity of the ions present: at the cathode, the less reactive metal (or hydrogen) is discharged; at the anode, a halide is discharged if present, otherwise oxygen is discharged from water.
电解熔融溴化铅时，Pb²⁺ 在阴极得电子生成金属铅，Br⁻ 在阳极失电子生成溴。在水溶液中，产物取决于离子活性顺序：阴极上生成活性较低金属（或氢气）；阳极高存在卤素离子则优先放电，否则由水释放氧气。
Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis of purified Al₂O₃ dissolved in molten cryolite, which lowers the operating temperature. At the carbon anodes, oxygen produced reacts with carbon to form CO₂, so anodes need regular replacement. Copper can be purified using electrolysis with a pure copper cathode and an impure copper anode; the anode sludge contains precious metals.
铝的提取是通过电解溶解在熔融冰晶石中的纯化 Al₂O₃ 来进行的，冰晶石可以降低操作温度。碳阳极上产生的氧气与碳反应生成 CO₂，因此阳极需定期更换。铜可利用电解进行精炼，以纯铜为阴极，粗铜为阳极；阳极泥中含有贵金属。
Electrolysis is also used to electroplate objects with a thin layer of metal, e.g., silver‑plating a spoon, using the object as the cathode and the plating metal as the anode in a suitable electrolyte.
电解还用于电镀，在物体表面覆盖一层薄金属，如镀银时以勺为阴极、以银为阳极，选用合适的电解液即可。
6. Energy Changes and Rates of Reaction | 能量变化与反应速率
Exothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings, usually as heat, causing a temperature rise (e.g., combustion, neutralisation). Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings, leading to a temperature drop (e.g., thermal decomposition of carbonates). Energy‑level diagrams show the energy change and activation energy.
放热反应向环境释放能量（通常以热的形式），导致温度升高（如燃烧、中和反应）。吸热反应从环境吸收能量，导致温度下降（如碳酸盐的热分解）。能级图展示了反应的能量变化和活化能。
gy change of a reaction using bond energies: ΔH = sum of bonds broken − sum of bonds made.
化学键的断裂是吸热的，化学键的形成是放热的。你可以利用键能计算反应的总能量变化：ΔH = 断键吸收的能量 − 成键释放的能量。
Rate of reaction is the change in amount of reactant or product per unit time. Factors that increase rate include: higher concentration (or pressure for gases), increased surface area of solids, higher temperature, and the presence of a catalyst. A catalyst provides an alternative pathway of lower activation energy and is not used up in the reaction.
反应速率是单位时间内反应物或产物量的变化。能提高反应速率的因素包括：浓度（或气体压强）增大、固体表面积增大、温度升高以及使用催化剂。催化剂能降低活化能，提供不同的反应途径，自身在反应中不被消耗。
ct is fixed, but the rate determines how quickly it is reached. Use collision theory: particles must collide with sufficient energy (≥ activation energy) and correct orientation.
要求能够解读速率曲线图（如气体体积-时间图），并解释斜率变化。对于一定质量的反应物，生成物的最终量是固定的，但速率决定了达到终点所需的时间。运用碰撞理论解释：粒子必须发生碰撞，并具有足够的能量（≥ 活化能）和合适的取向。
7. Metals and the Reactivity Series | 金属与活动性顺序
The reactivity series lists metals in order of their tendency to lose electrons and form positive ions. Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium are very reactive; magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, tin and lead are moderately reactive; copper, silver and gold are relatively unreactive.
金属活动性顺序按照金属失去电子形成阳离子的趋势排列。钾、钠、锂、钙非常活泼；镁、铝、锌、铁、锡、铅中等活泼；铜、银、金相对不活泼。
ore reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its oxide or salt solution. These displacement reactions can be used to deduce the reactivity order.
金属与氧气反应生成金属氧化物（如 4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃）。较活泼的金属能将较不活泼的金属从其氧化物或盐溶液中置换出来。这类置换反应可用于推断活动性顺序。
₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂. The limestone decomposes to CaO, which reacts with acidic silica impurities to form slag.
铁在高炉中用焦炭（碳）、石灰石和铁矿石（主要为 Fe₂O₃）冶炼。主要反应为：C + O₂ → CO₂；CO₂ + C → 2CO；Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂。石灰石分解生成 CaO，与酸性二氧化硅杂质反应形成炉渣。
Aluminium is more reactive than carbon, so it cannot be extracted by carbon reduction; electrolysis is used instead (see Electrolysis). Titanium is extracted by reducing titanium chloride with sodium or magnesium because it is too reactive for carbon reduction. Alloys are mixtures of metals (e.g., steel is iron with carbon and other elements) that often have improved properties compared with pure metals.
铝比碳活泼，因此不能通过碳还原得到，必须用电解法（参见电解部分）。钛通过钠或镁还原四氯化钛来制备，因为它过于活泼，不能用碳还原。合金是金属的混合物（如钢是铁与碳等元素的混合物），其性能往往优于纯金属。
8. Organic Chemistry: Hydrocarbons and Polymers | 有机化学：烃与聚合物
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons separated into fractions by fractional distillation. Longer‑chain molecules have higher boiling points because of stronger intermolecular forces. Fractions include petrol, diesel, kerosene and fuel oil.
原油是一种碳氢化合物的混合物，通过分馏可将其分离为不同馏分。链越长的分子，分子间作用力越强，沸点越高。常见馏分包括汽油、柴油、煤油和燃料油。
Alkanes have the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ and contain only single C–C bonds. They are saturated hydrocarbons. Methane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈) and butane (C₄H₁₀) are the first four members. They burn with a clean flame in plentiful air to give CO₂ and H₂O.
烷烃的通式为 CₙH₂ₙ₊₂，只含 C–C 单键，是饱和烃。前四种烷烃分别是甲烷(CH₄)、乙烷(C₂H₆)、丙烷(C₃H₈)和丁烷(C₄H₁₀)。它们在充足空气中燃烧，火焰洁净，生成 CO₂ 和 H₂O。
bond, making them unsaturated. Ethene (C₂H₄) and propene (C₃H₆) are common examples. The double bond is the functional group that reacts with bromine water: the orange colour disappears, which serves as a test for unsaturation.
烯烃的通式为 CₙH₂ₙ，至少含有一个 C=C 双键，是不饱和烃。常见例子有乙烯(C₂H₄)和丙烯(C₃H₆)。双键是官能团，能与溴水反应，使橙色褪去，这一现象可用于检验不饱和键。
Cracking converts long‑chain alkanes into shorter, more useful alkanes and alkenes. Catalytic cracking uses high temperature and a zeolite catalyst. Steam cracking uses high temperature and steam. Addition polymerisation occurs when alkene monomers join together by opening their double bonds to form long‑chain polymers, e.g., poly(ethene) and poly(propene).
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