📚 IGCSE Biology: End-of-Year Revision Checklist | IGCSE 生物：期末复习提纲
This comprehensive revision checklist covers all major topics in the IGCSE Biology syllabus, helping you focus on key concepts, essential processes, and common exam questions. Use it to structure your revision and make sure no topic is left behind.
这份全面的复习提纲涵盖了IGCSE生物教学大纲中的所有主要主题，帮助你聚焦核心概念、关键过程和高频考点。用它来规划你的复习，确保每个主题都不遗漏。
1. Cell Structure and Organisation | 细胞结构与组织
All living organisms are made of cells. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Animal cells contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes, while plant cells additionally have a rigid cell wall, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts.
所有生物体都由细胞构成。细胞是生命的基本结构和功能单位。动物细胞含有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体，而植物细胞还有坚硬的细胞壁、一个中央大液泡和叶绿体。
Organelles work together to carry out life processes. The nucleus controls the cell's activities and contains genetic material. Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration, releasing energy. Ribosomes synthesise proteins using information from DNA.
各细胞器协同完成生命活动。细胞核控制细胞活动并含有遗传物质。线粒体是有氧呼吸的场所，释放能量。核糖体根据DNA的信息合成蛋白质。
Specialised cells have adaptations for specific functions. For example, root hair cells have a long extension to increase surface area for water absorption, and red blood cells lack a nucleus to maximise space for haemoglobin.
特化细胞具有适应特定功能的特征。例如，根毛细胞有长长的突起以增加吸收水分的表面积，红细胞没有细胞核，为血红蛋白腾出更多空间。
Cells are organised into tissues, organs and organ systems. A tissue is a group of similar cells working together; an organ contains different tissues performing a particular function; an organ system is a group of organs that cooperate to carry out a major body function.
细胞构成组织、器官和器官系统。组织是一群相似细胞协同工作；器官包含不同组织执行特定功能；器官系统则是一组器官相互配合完成主要生理功能。
2. Biological Molecules | 生物分子
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are the main biological molecules. Carbohydrates (starch and sugars) are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Glucose is the primary energy source; starch and glycogen are storage forms.
碳水化合物、蛋白质和脂质是主要的生物分子。碳水化合物（淀粉和糖类）由碳、氢、氧组成。葡萄糖是主要的能量来源；淀粉和糖原是储存形式。
Proteins are composed of amino acids and have a huge variety of functions, including enzymes, structural components and hormones. Lipids (fats and oils) are made of fatty acids and glycerol and are used for long-term energy storage, insulation and cell membranes.
蛋白质由氨基酸构成，功能多样，包括酶、结构成分和激素。脂质（脂肪和油）由脂肪酸和甘油组成，用于长期储能、保温和构成细胞膜。
Food tests are essential practical skills. Iodine solution turns blue-black with starch. Benedict's solution turns brick-red when heated with reducing sugars. Biuret solution turns violet in the presence of protein. The ethanol emulsion test gives a cloudy white layer for lipids.
食物测试是重要的实验技能。碘液遇淀粉变蓝黑色。本尼迪克特溶液与还原糖共热呈砖红色。双缩脲溶液遇蛋白质变紫色。乙醇乳浊液测试脂质会产生浑浊的白色层。
3. Enzymes | 酶
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein. They speed up chemical reactions without being used up. Each enzyme has a specific active site that binds to its substrate, following the lock-and-key model.
酶是由蛋白质构成的生物催化剂。它们加速化学反应而自身不被消耗。每种酶都有一个特定的活性位点，与底物结合，遵循锁钥模型。
Temperature and pH affect enzyme activity. As temperature rises, rate of reaction increases up to an optimum; beyond this, the enzyme denatures and activity drops sharply. Each enzyme also works best at a particular pH.
温度和pH影响酶活性。温度升高，反应速率加快，直到最适温度；超过此温度酶会变性，活性急剧下降。每种酶也有其最适pH。
Enzymes are used in digestion and industry. Amylase breaks down starch to maltose, protease digests proteins to amino acids, and lipase breaks down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol. In industry, enzymes are used in biological washing powders and food processing.
酶应用于消化和工业。淀粉酶将淀粉分解为麦芽糖，蛋白酶把蛋白质消化成氨基酸，脂肪酶则将脂质分解为脂肪酸和甘油。工业上，酶用于生物洗衣粉和食品加工。
4. Plant Nutrition and Transport | 植物营养与运输
d equation is: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen. The balanced symbol equation is:
光合作用是植物利用光能制造葡萄糖的过程。文字方程式是：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气。配平的符号方程式为：
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis with a large surface area, thin structure, and many chloroplasts in the palisade layer. Stomata allow gas exchange; guard cells control their opening and closing.
叶片适应光合作用的结构包括面积大、薄，以及栅栏层中含有大量叶绿体。气孔允许气体交换；保卫细胞控制气孔的开闭。
Xylem transports water and mineral ions from roots to leaves. Water moves in transpiration stream, driven by evaporation from leaves. Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids from sources to sinks, in a process called translocation.
木质部将水和矿物质离子从根运输到叶片。水在蒸腾流中移动，由叶片蒸发驱动。韧皮部将蔗糖和氨基酸从源运输到库，这一过程称为转移。
5. Human Nutrition and Digestion | 人体营养与消化
A balanced diet includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre. Malnutrition can result from a lack of specific nutrients, causing deficiency diseases such as scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) or rickets (vitamin D/calcium deficiency).
均衡膳食包含碳水化合物、蛋白质、脂质、维生素、矿物质、水和膳食纤维。营养不良可能导致特定营养素缺乏，引起坏血病（缺乏维生素C）或佝偻病（缺乏维生素D/钙）等缺乏症。
Digestion breaks large molecules into smaller, absorbable forms. Mechanical digestion (chewing, stomach churning) increases surface area. Chemical digestion uses enzymes: amylase in the mouth and small intestine, protease in the stomach and small intestine, and lipase in the small intestine.
消化将大分子分解为可吸收的小分子。物理消化（咀嚼、胃的搅拌）增大表面积。化学消化利用酶：口腔和小肠中有淀粉酶，胃和小肠中有蛋白酶，小肠中有脂肪酶。
Absorption mainly occurs in the small intestine. The small intestine has villi and microvilli that greatly increase surface area. Each villus contains a lacteal for lipid absorption and a capillary network for glucose and amino acids.
吸收主要发生在小肠。小肠内壁有绒毛和微绒毛，极大增加了表面积。每个绒毛含有一个乳糜管用于吸收脂质，以及毛细血管网吸收葡萄糖和氨基酸。
6. Respiration and Gas Exchange | 呼吸作用与气体交换
ucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water. Anaerobic respiration in animals produces lactic acid; in yeast, it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.
呼吸作用是葡萄糖释放能量的过程。有氧呼吸需要氧气，产生大量ATP。文字方程式为：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水。动物的无氧呼吸产生乳酸；酵母的无氧呼吸产生乙醇和二氧化碳。
The human gas exchange system includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. Alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by having a large surface area, thin walls, a moist lining, and a rich blood supply.
人体气体交换系统包括气管、支气管、细支气管和肺泡。肺泡适应气体交换的特征是表面积大、壁薄、内壁湿润并具有丰富的血液供应。
Breathing involves inhalation and exhalation. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, the intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribcage, and volume increases, reducing pressure to draw air in.
呼吸包括吸气和呼气。吸气时，膈肌收缩变平，肋间肌收缩使胸廓上升，胸腔容积增大，压力降低，空气被吸入。
7. Circulatory System | 循环系统
The circulatory system comprises the heart, blood vessels and blood. The heart is a muscular pump with four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle. Valves prevent backflow of blood.
循环系统由心脏、血管和血液组成。心脏是一个肌肉泵，有四个腔室：右心房、右心室、左心房、左心室。瓣膜防止血液倒流。
Arteries carry blood away from the heart at high pressure; they have thick, elastic walls. Veins return blood to the heart and have valves. Capillaries are tiny vessels with walls one cell thick, allowing exchange of substances.
动脉将血液从心脏泵出，压力高，管壁厚且富有弹性。静脉将血液送回心脏，内有瓣膜。毛细血管是极细的血管，管壁仅一层细胞厚，利于物质交换。
Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen via haemoglobin. White blood cells defend against infection. Platelets are involved in blood clotting.
血液由血浆、红细胞、白细胞和血小板组成。红细胞通过血红蛋白运输氧气。白细胞防御感染。血小板参与血液凝固。
8. Coordination and Response | 协调与反应
The nervous system uses electrical impulses to bring about fast, short-lived responses. A reflex arc includes a receptor, sensory neurone, relay neurone in the spinal cord, motor neurone, and effector. Synapses use chemical neurotransmitters to pass signals.
神经系统利用电冲动产生快速、短效的反应。反射弧包括感受器、感觉神经元、脊髓中的联络神经元、运动神经元和效应器。突触使用化学神经递质传递信号。
The eye focuses light on the retina. The cornea and lens focus light; the iris controls the pupil size. In dim light, the radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil; in bright light, circular muscles contract to constrict it. Accommodation involves changes in lens shape.
眼睛将光线聚焦在视网膜上。角膜和晶状体聚焦光线；虹膜控制瞳孔大小。在暗光下，放射肌收缩使瞳孔扩大；在强光下，环状肌收缩使瞳孔缩小。调节涉及晶状体形状的改变。
Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the blood. They bring about slower but longer-lasting effects. Adrenaline prepares the body for 'fight or flight', increasing heart rate and blood flow to muscles. Insulin lowers blood glucose by converting excess to glycogen.
激素是通过血液运输的化学信使。它们产生较慢但持久的效应。肾上腺素使身体做好“战斗或逃跑”准备，加快心率和肌肉血流量。胰岛素通过将多余葡萄糖转化为糖原而降低血糖。
9. Reproduction and Inheritance | 生殖与遗传
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes, producing genetically varied offspring. Asexual reproduction produces clones from one parent, with no variation. Examples include binary fission in bacteria and runners in plants.
有性生殖涉及雌雄配子的融合，产生遗传多样的后代。无性生殖从一个亲本产生克隆，没有变异。例子包括细菌的二分裂和植物的匍匐茎。
DNA is a double helix molecule containing genes. A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein. Chromosomes are long molecules of DNA. In humans, body cells have 46 chromosomes, gametes have 23.
DNA是双螺旋分子，含有基因。基因是编码蛋白质的DNA片段。染色体是长链DNA分子。人体体细胞有46条染色体，配子有23条。
Monohybrid inheritance follows predictable patterns. Alleles can be dominant or recessive. Punnett squares are used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring. Sex-linked disorders, such as colour blindness, are carried on the X chromosome.
单基因遗传遵循可预测的模式。等位基因可以是显性或隐性。庞纳特方格用于预测后代的基因型和表型。性连锁疾病，如色盲，由X染色体携带。
Natural selection drives evolution. Individuals with advantageous alleles are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on these alleles. Over generations, this can lead to the development of new species.
自然选择驱动进化。具有有利等位基因的个体更可能存活和繁殖，并将这些等位基因传递下去。经过许多代，可能导致新物种的形成。
10. Ecology and Biotechnology | 生态学与生物技术
Ecosystems consist of all the organisms in a habitat and their interactions. Food chains and webs show feeding relationships. Energy is transferred through trophic levels but is lost as heat, respiration and waste; only about 10% is passed on to the next level.
生态系统包括栖息地中的所有生物及其相互作用。食物链和食物网显示了摄食关系。能量通过营养级传递，但以热、呼吸和废物形式损失；只有大约10%传递到下一营养级。
The carbon cycle involves photosynthesis, respiration, combustion and decomposition. Microorganisms decompose dead material, returning carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Deforestation and burning fossil fuels increase atmospheric CO₂ levels.
碳循环涉及光合作用、呼吸作用、燃烧和分解作用。微生物分解死去的物质，将二氧化碳释放回大气中。森林砍伐和燃烧化石燃料增加了大气中CO₂的浓度。
Biotechnology uses living organisms for practical purposes. Yeast is used in bread-making (anaerobic respiration produces CO₂ to make dough rise) and biofuel production. Bacteria can be genetically modified to produce human insulin. Fermenters provide controlled conditions for large-scale culture.
生物技术利用生物体实现实际用途。酵母用于面包制作（无氧呼吸产生CO₂使面团膨胀）和生物燃料生产。细菌可被基因改造以生产人胰岛素。发酵罐为大规模培养提供受控条件。
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