Mind Map Quick Revision for GCSE Edexcel Chemistry | GCSE Edexcel 化学：思维导图速记

📚 Mind Map Quick Revision for GCSE Edexcel Chemistry | GCSE Edexcel 化学：思维导图速记

This mind map revision guide breaks down the entire GCSE Edexcel Chemistry syllabus into clear, interconnected branches, helping you recall key concepts quickly and effectively. Each section flows logically, just like a mind map, linking fundamental ideas to their details and applications.

这份思维导图速记指南将 GCSE Edexcel 化学考纲分解成清晰、相互关联的分支，帮助你快速有效地回忆关键概念。每个部分像思维导图一样按逻辑展开，将基本思想与细节及其应用联系起来。

1. Atomic Structure | 原子结构

Atoms are the smallest units of matter, consisting of a central nucleus surrounded by electrons in shells. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, held together by the strong nuclear force. Electrons occupy energy levels, and their arrangement determines chemical properties.

原子是物质的最小单位，由一个中心的原子核及围绕它的电子层组成。原子核包含质子和中子，由强核力结合在一起。电子占据能级，其排布决定了化学性质。

• Subatomic particles: Proton (p⁺) – mass 1, charge +1; Neutron (n⁰) – mass 1, charge 0; Electron (e⁻) – mass ≈0, charge –1.
• 亚原子粒子：质子 (p⁺) – 质量 1，电荷 +1；中子 (n⁰) – 质量 1，电荷 0；电子 (e⁻) – 质量约 0，电荷 –1。
• Atomic number (Z): number of protons, defines the element.
• 原子序数 (Z)：质子数，决定元素种类。
• Mass number (A): total protons + neutrons.
• 质量数 (A)：质子数 + 中子数。
• Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, e.g., Carbon‑12 and Carbon‑14.
• 同位素：同一元素的原子，中子数不同，例如碳‑12 和碳‑14。
• Electronic configuration: electrons fill shells 2,8,8... up to 20, e.g., sodium (Na) 2,8,1.
• 电子排布：电子按 2,8,8... 填充（最多到 20），例如钠 (Na) 2,8,1。

Number of neutrons = Mass number − Atomic number

中子数 = 质量数 − 原子序数

---

2. The Periodic Table | 元素周期表

The periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number, revealing patterns in properties. Elements in the same group have the same number of outer‑shell electrons, leading to similar chemical behaviour. Periods correspond to the number of electron shells.

元素周期表按原子序数递增排列元素，展现了性质的规律。同一族元素具有相同的最外层电子数，因此化学性质相似。周期对应电子层数。

• Group 1 – Alkali metals: 1 outer electron, very reactive, reactivity increases down group; form +1 ions, react vigorously with water to make metal hydroxide + hydrogen.
• 第 1 族 – 碱金属：最外层 1 个电子，非常活泼，活泼性自上而下增强；形成 +1 价离子，与水剧烈反应生成金属氢氧化物和氢气。
• Group 7 – Halogens: 7 outer electrons, form –1 ions, reactivity decreases down group; fluorine is the most reactive. Displacement reactions: a more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive one from its salt.
• 第 7 族 – 卤素：最外层 7 个电子，形成 –1 价离子，活泼性自上而下减弱；氟最活泼。置换反应：较活泼的卤素可从盐中置换出较不活泼的卤素。
• Group 0 – Noble gases: full outer shell, inert (unreactive), used in lighting (neon) and as inert atmospheres (argon).
• 第 0 族 – 稀有气体：最外层满电子，惰性（不活泼），用于照明（氖）和惰性气氛（氩）。
• Transition metals: form coloured compounds, have variable oxidation states, are good catalysts, e.g., iron in the Haber process.
• 过渡金属：形成有色化合物，具有多种氧化态，良好催化剂，例如哈伯法中的铁。
• Metal vs non‑metal properties: Metals are shiny, conductive, malleable; non‑metals are dull, brittle, poor conductors. Metalloids like silicon show intermediate properties.
• 金属与非金属性质：金属有光泽、导电、延展性好；非金属暗淡、脆、导电性差。类金属如硅介于两者之间。

---

3. Chemical Bonding | 化学键

Atoms bond to achieve a full outer shell of electrons, gaining stability. There are three main types of strong chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic. The type of bonding dictates the physical properties of substances, such as melting point and conductivity.

原子通过成键获得最外层满电子，从而达到稳定。有三种主要强化学键：离子键、共价键和金属键。键合类型决定了物质的物理性质，如熔点和导电性。

• Ionic bonding: transfer of electrons from metal to non‑metal, forming oppositely charged ions held by strong electrostatic attraction. Giant ionic lattice, e.g., NaCl – high mp, conducts when molten/dissolved.
• 离子键：电子从金属转移到非金属，形成带相反电荷的离子，靠强静电引力结合。巨型离子晶格，例如 NaCl – 高熔点，熔融或溶解时可导电。
• Covalent bonding: sharing of electrons between non‑metals. Simple molecular substances (H₂O, CO₂) have low mp and do not conduct electricity. Giant covalent structures (diamond, SiO₂) have very high mp and are hard.
• 共价键：非金属间共用电子。简单分子物质 (H₂O, CO₂) 熔点低且不导电。巨型共价结构（金刚石, SiO₂）熔点极高且很硬。
• Metallic bonding: sea of delocalised electrons around positive metal ions, explains high mp, malleability, and excellent electrical conductivity. Alloys are mixtures of metals, often harder.
• 金属键：离域电子海包围着正金属离子，解释了高熔点、延展性和优异的导电性。合金是金属的混合物，通常更硬。
• Polarity and intermolecular forces: In covalent molecules, unequal sharing creates dipoles (polar bonds). Intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonds (in H₂O, NH₃) raise boiling points.
• 极性与分子间作用力：共价分子中，电子共用不均产生偶极（极性键）。分子间作用力如氢键（存在于 H₂O, NH₃）会升高沸点。

Bonding type	键合类型	Melting point	熔点	Conductivity	导电性
Ionic	离子键	High	高	Only when molten or in solution	仅熔融或溶液中可导电
Covalent (simple)	共价键（简单）	Low	低	None	不导电
Covalent (giant)	共价键（巨型）	Very high	极高	None (except graphite)	不导电（石墨除外）
Metallic	金属键	High (variable)	高（变化）	Excellent (solid and liquid)	优良（固液均可）

---

4. Quantitative Chemistry | 定量化学

Quantitative chemistry uses moles to measure amounts of substances. The mole concept bridges the microscopic world of atoms to measurable masses. Key calculations include relative formula mass, empirical formulae, and reacting masses.

定量化学用摩尔来计量物质的量。摩尔的概念将微观原子世界与可测量的质量联系起来。关键计算包括相对式量、经验式和反应质量。

• Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ): average mass of an atom compared to 1/12 of carbon‑12.
• 相对原子质量 (Aᵣ)：原子的平均质量与碳‑12 的 1/12 相比。
• Relative formula mass (Mᵣ): sum of Aᵣ of all atoms in a formula unit.
• 相对式量 (Mᵣ)：一个式量单位中所有原子的 Aᵣ 之和。
• Mole: ount of substance containing 6.02 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro constant). Moles = mass ÷ Mᵣ.
• 摩尔：含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个粒子的物质的量（阿伏伽德罗常数）。摩尔 = 质量 ÷ Mᵣ。
• Empirical formula: simplest whole‑number ratio of atoms in a compound, found from percentage composition or mass.
• 经验式：化合物中各原子最简整数比，通过百分组成或质量求出。
• Molecular formula: actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. For example, glucose molecular formula C₆H₁₂O₆, empirical formula CH₂O.
• 分子式：一个分子中每种元素的实际原子数。例如葡萄糖分子式 C₆H₁₂O₆，经验式 CH₂O。
• Reacting masses: use balanced equations to calculate mass of product or reactant; stoichiometry is based on mole ratios.
• 反应质量：利用配平方程式计算产物或反应物的质量；基于摩尔比进行化学计量。
• Limiting reactant: the reactant that gets used up first, limiting the amount of product formed.
• 限制反应物：最先消耗完的反应物，限制产物的生成量。
• Percentage yield: (actual yield ÷ theoretical yield) × 100. Reasons for not 100%: incomplete reaction, loss during separation.
• 百分产率：（实际产量 ÷ 理论产量）× 100。不足 100% 的原因：反应不完全，分离过程损失。
• Atom economy: of desired product ÷ total Mᵣ of reactants) × 100. High atom economy indicates less waste.
• 原子经济性：（目标产物 Mᵣ ÷ 反应物总 Mᵣ）× 100。高原子经济性意味着废物少。

Moles = Mass / Mᵣ

摩尔 = 质量 / 相对式量

---

5. Chemical Changes | 化学变化

Chemical changes involve the formation of new substances through reactions. Key types include acid–base reactions, reactions of metals, and redox processes. Understanding reactivity helps predict reaction outcomes.

化学变化通过反应生成新物质。关键类型包括酸碱反应、金属反应和氧化还原过程。理解活泼性有助于预测反应结果。

• Reactivity series: potassium > sodium > calcium > magnesium > aluminium > (carbon) > zinc > iron > (hydrogen) > copper > silver > gold. Metals above hydrogen react with acids.
• 金属活动性顺序：钾 > 钠 > 钙 > 镁 > 铝 > (碳) > 锌 > 铁 > (氢) > 铜 > 银 > 金。在氢之上的金属能与酸反应。
• Displacement reactions: ve metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compound, e.g., Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu.
• 置换反应：较活泼金属从其化合物中置换出较不活泼金属，例如 Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu。
• Acids and bases: Acid + metal oxide → salt + water; Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.
• 酸和碱：酸 + 金属 → 盐 + 氢气；酸 + 金属氧化物 → 盐 + 水；酸 + 金属碳酸盐 → 盐 + 水 + 二氧化碳。
• Neutralisation: H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O. pH scale 0–14: less than 7 acidic, 7 neutral, greater than 7 alkaline.
• 中和反应：H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O。pH 范围 0–14：小于 7 酸性，7 中性，大于 7 碱性。
• Redox: Reduction is gain of electrons, oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL RIG). In reactions, an oxidising agent is reduced; a reducing agent is oxidised.
• 氧化还原：还原是得到电子，氧化是失去电子 (OIL RIG)。在反应中，氧化剂被还原，还原剂被氧化。
• Electrolysis of molten compounds: idation). For molten sodium chloride, Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na at cathode, 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻ at anode.
• 熔融化合物的电解：阳离子移向阴极（还原），阴离子移向阳极（氧化）。对于熔融氯化钠，阴极 Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na，阳极 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻。

---

广告 / Sponsored

6. Electrolysis in Solution | 溶液中的电解

When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, the presence of water makes the products more complex. At the cathode, the less reactive element (metal or hydrogen) is discharged. At the anode, the halide ion or hydroxide ion is discharged, depending on concentration and reactivity.

当电解水溶液时，水的存在使产物更复杂。在阴极，较不活泼的元素（金属或氢）被析出。在阳极，取决于浓度和活泼性，卤素离子或氢氧根离子被析出。

• Cathode rules: → H₂). If the metal is less reactive than hydrogen (e.g., copper), the metal is deposited.
• 阴极规则：如果金属比氢活泼（如钠、钾），则水产生氢气 (2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → H₂)。如果金属不如氢活泼（如铜），则析出金属。
• Anode rules: therwise, hydroxide ions from water are discharged to give oxygen: 4OH⁻ → O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻.
• 阳极规则：若存在卤素离子 (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻)，则优先生成卤素。否则，水中的氢氧根离子放电产生氧气：4OH⁻ → O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻。
• Electroplating: using electrolysis to coat a metal object with a thin layer of another metal, e.g., silver plating using silver anode and silver nitrate electrolyte.
• 电镀：利用电解在金属物体表面镀一薄层另一种金属，例如用银阳极和硝酸银电解液进行镀银。
• Purification of copper: impure copper anode, pure copper cathode, CuSO₄ electrolyte. Anode dissolves, pure copper deposits on cathode; impurities fall as sludge.
• 铜的精炼：以粗铜为阳极，纯铜为阴极，CuSO₄ 为电解液。阳极溶解，纯铜沉积在阴极；杂质成为阳极泥落下。

---

7. Energy Changes | 能量变化

Chemical reactions involve energy transfer. Exothermic reactions release heat (ΔH negative), while endothermic reactions absorb heat (ΔH positive). Bond breaking is endothermic, bond making is exothermic.

化学反应涉及能量转移。放热反应释放热量（ΔH 为负），吸热反应吸收热量（ΔH 为正）。断键吸热，成键放热。

• Exothermic examples: combustion, neutralisation, respiration. Used in hand warmers and self‑heating cans.
• 放热实例：燃烧、中和、呼吸作用。用于暖手宝和自热罐。
• Endothermic examples: photosynthesis, thermal decomposition of carbonates, dissolving ammonium nitrate in water. Used in cold packs.
• 吸热实例：光合作用、碳酸盐热分解、硝酸铵溶于水。用于冰袋。
• Bond energy calculations: ΔH = total energy absorbed to break bonds – gy released when forming bonds. A negative value indicates an exothermic reaction overall.
• 键能计算：ΔH = 断裂化学键吸收的总能量 − 形成化学键放出的总能量。负值表示总反应放热。
• Activation energy: the minimum energy needed for particles to collide successfully and react. Catalysts lower activation energy, providing an alternative pathway.
• 活化能：粒子成功碰撞并反应所需的最低能量。催化剂降低活化能，提供替代反应路径。
• Reaction profile diagrams: show energy of reactants, products, and activation energy. Exothermic profiles have products at lower energy; endothermic profiles have products at higher energy.
• 反应曲线图：显示反应物、产物的能量及活化能。放热反应曲线中产物能量更低；吸热反应曲线中产物能量更高。

ΔH = Σ(Bond energies broken) − Σ(Bond energies formed)

ΔH = 断裂键能总和 − 形成键能总和

---

8. Rates of Reaction and Equilibrium | 反应速率与平衡

The rate of a chemical reaction depends on collision frequency and the proportion of collisions with energy greater than the activation energy. Factors affecting rate can be explained by collision theory. In reversible reactions, equilibrium is reached when forward and reverse rates become equal.

化学反应速率取决于碰撞频率以及能量大于活化能的碰撞比例。影响速率的因素可用碰撞理论解释。在可逆反应中，当正逆反应速率相等时达到平衡。

• Factors increasing rate: higher temperature (particles move faster, more frequent and energetic collisions), higher concentration/pressure (more particles per unit volume), larger surface area (more exposed particles), use of a catalyst (lowers activation energy).
• 提高速率因素：升高温度（粒子运动更快，碰撞更频繁且更有能量），增大浓度/压强（单位体积内更多粒子），增大表面积（暴露更多粒子），使用催化剂（降低活化能）。
• Measuring rate: volume of gas produced vs time, change in mass if gas escapes, colour change using colorimeter, formation of precipitate by measuring time for a cross to disappear.
• 测量速率：测量产生的气体体积随时间变化，气体逸出时质量变化，使用比色计测量颜色变化，通过测量十字消失的时间测定沉淀生成。
• Le Chatelier’s Principle: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in conditions, the position of equilibrium shifts to oppose the change.
• 勒夏特列原理：如果处于平衡的体系受到条件变化，平衡位置会移动以削弱这种变化。
• Effect of temperature on equilibrium: Increase temperature favours the endothermic direction. Decrease temperature favours the exothermic direction.
• 温度对平衡的影响：升温有利于吸热方向；降温有利于放热方向。
• Effect of pressure on equilibrium: Increase pressure favours side with fewer moles of gas. Decrease pressure favours side with more moles of gas.
• 压强对平衡的影响：增大压强有利于气体摩尔数较少的一侧；减小压强有利于气体摩尔数较多的一侧。
• Haber process: N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃, conditions: 450°C, 200 atm, iron catalyst. Compromise conditions optimise rate and yield.
• 哈伯法：N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃，条件：450°C, 200 atm, 铁催化剂。折衷条件优化了速率和产率。
• Contact process: 2SO₂ + O₂ ⇌ 2SO₃, vanadium(V) oxide catalyst, 450°C, 1–2 atm.
• 接触法：2SO₂ + O₂ ⇌ 2SO₃，五氧化二钒催化剂，450°C，1–2 atm。

---

9. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon‑based compounds. The homologous series are families of compounds with similar chemical properties, same general formula, and a gradual trend in physical properties. Crude oil, a mixture of hydrocarbons, is separated by fractional distillation and processed by cracking.

有机化学是研究碳基化合物的学科。同系物是具有相似化学性质、相同通式、物理性质渐变的化合物家族。原油是烃类混合物，通过分馏分离，并通过裂化加工。

• Alkanes: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂, saturated, single bonds only. Methane (CH₄) to butane (C₄H₁₀) are common fuels. Complete combustion yields CO₂ + H₂O; incomplete combustion produces CO and/or soot (C).
• 烷烃：CₙH₂ₙ₊₂，饱和烃，仅含单键。甲烷 (CH₄) 到丁烷 (C₄H₁₀) 为常见燃料。完全燃烧生成 CO₂ + H₂O；不完全燃烧产生 CO 和/或碳 (C)。
• Alkenes: ation), water (steam, hydration → alcohol), halogens (e.g., Br₂ turns orange to colourless – test for unsaturation). Polymerisation: many alkene monomers join to form a polymer.
• 烯烃：CₙH₂ₙ，不饱和烃，含 C=C 双键。加成反应：与氢气（加氢），与水蒸气（水合 → 醇），与卤素（如 Br₂ 由橙色变为无色 – 检验不饱和度）。聚合反应：许多烯烃单体连接形成聚合物。
• Alcohols: functional group – ose → ethanol + CO₂) or hydration of ethene. Used as solvent, fuel, and for making esters.
• 醇：官能团 –OH，例如乙醇 (C₂H₅OH)。可通过发酵（葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + CO₂）或乙烯水合法制备。用作溶剂、燃料和酯的制备。
• Carboxylic acids: functional group –COOH, e.g., ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH). Weak acids, partially ionise in water. React with alcohols to form esters (RCOOR') + water, with acid catalyst.
• 羧酸：官能团 –COOH，例如乙酸 (CH₃COOH)。弱酸，在水中部分电离。与醇反应生成酯 (RCOOR') 和水，需要酸催化。
• Esters: sweet‑smelling compounds used in perfumes and flavourings. Formed from alcohol + carboxylic acid, reversible esterification.
• 酯：有香味的化合物，用于香水和调味品。由醇与羧酸可逆酯化生成。
• Polymers: Addition polymers (poly(ethene), PVC) from alkenes. Condensation polymers (polyesters) form with loss of small molecule like water. DNA is a natural polymer.
• 聚合物：加聚聚合物（聚乙烯、聚氯乙烯）来自烯烃。缩聚聚合物（聚酯）形成时脱去小分子如水。DNA 是天然聚合物。

---

10. Chemical Analysis | 化学分析

Qualitative analysis identifies substances, while quantitative analysis determines amounts. Purity is important in chemistry; a pure substance melts or boils at a specific, sharp temperature. Impurities lower melting point and increase boiling range.

定性分析鉴定物质，定量分析测定含量。化学中纯度很重要；纯物质在特定、敏锐的温度熔化或沸腾。杂质降低熔点并扩大沸程。

• Chromatography: f value = distance moved by spot ÷ distance moved by solvent, used to identify substances.
• 色谱法：将混合物分离为组分。流动相（溶剂）流过固定相（纸或薄层板）。Rf 值 = 斑点移动距离 ÷ 溶剂前沿移动距离，用于鉴别物质。
• Tests for gases: Hydrogen – lit splint gives squeaky pop. Oxygen – glowing splint relights. Carbon dioxide – limewater turns milky. Chlorine – bleaches damp litmus paper. Ammonia – turns damp red litmus blue, strong smell.
• 气体检验：氢气 – 点燃的木条发出爆鸣声。氧气 – 带火星木条复燃。二氧化碳 – 石灰水变浑浊。氯气 – 漂白湿润的蓝色石蕊试纸。氨气 – 使湿润红色石蕊试纸变蓝，有刺激性气味。
• Tests for cations (flame tests): Lithium (Li⁺) – red, Sodium (Na⁺) – yellow, Potassium (K⁺) – lilac, Calcium (Ca²⁺) – orange‑red, Copper (Cu²⁺) – green‑blue.
• 阳离子检验（焰色试验）：锂 (Li⁺) – 红色，钠 (Na⁺) – 黄色，钾 (K⁺) – 淡紫色，钙 (Ca²⁺) – 砖红色，铜 (Cu²⁺) – 绿蓝色。
• Sodium hydroxide test for metal ions: Al³⁺ – white precipitate, dissolves in excess NaOH. Fe²⁺ – green precipitate. Fe³⁺ – brown precipitate. Cu²⁺ – blue precipitate.
• 氢氧化钠检验金属离子：Al³⁺ – 白色沉淀，溶于过量 NaOH。Fe²⁺ – 绿色沉淀。Fe³⁺ – 棕色沉淀。Cu²⁺ – 蓝色沉淀。
• Tests for anions: Carbonate (CO₃²⁻) – add acid, fizzing, CO₂ produced. Sulfate (SO₄²⁻) – add HCl then BaCl₂, white precipitate. Chloride/Bromide/Iodide – add nitric acid then AgNO₃; white (AgCl), cream (AgBr), yellow (AgI).
• 阴离子检验：碳酸根 (CO₃²⁻) – 加酸，起泡，生成 CO₂。硫酸根 (SO₄²⁻) – 加 HCl 后加 BaCl₂，白色沉淀。氯/溴/碘离子 – 加硝酸后加 AgNO₃；白色 (AgCl)、奶油色 (AgBr)、黄色 (AgI)。
• Instrumental analysis: more accurate and sensitive than chemical tests. Flame emission spectroscopy can identify ions and determine concentration.
• 仪器分析：比化学检验更准确灵敏。火焰发射光谱法可鉴定离子并测定浓度。

---

11. The Earth's Atmosphere and Resources | 地球大气与资源

The Earth's early atmosphere was formed by volcanic activity, releasing water vapour, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, but very little oxygen. Over billions of years, photosynthesis by algae and plants increased oxygen levels and reduced CO₂. Today's atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, with small amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapour.

地球早期大气由火山活动形成，释放水蒸气、二氧化碳、氨气、甲烷，但氧气极少。经过数十亿年，藻类和植物的光合作用增加氧气含量并降低 CO₂。今天的大气约含 78% 氮气、21% 氧气，以及少量氩气、二氧化碳和水蒸气。

• Greenhouse effect: greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, water vapour) absorb infrared radiation reflected from Earth's surface, warming the planet. Human activities (burning fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture) increase these gases, enhancing global warming and climate change.
• 温室效应：温室气体（CO₂, CH₄, 水蒸气）吸收从地球表面反射的红外辐射，使地球变暖。人类活动（燃烧化石燃料、砍伐森林、农业）增加了这些气体，加剧全球变暖与气候变化。
• Carbon footprint: total amount of CO₂ and other greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product, service, or event. Reducing carbon footprint: use renewable energy, improve efficiency, carbon capture, tree planting.
• 碳足迹：一个产品、服务或事件在整个生命周期中排放的 CO₂ 及其他温室气体总量。减少碳足迹：使用可再生能源、提高效率、碳捕获、植树。
• Pollutants from fuels: Incomplete combustion produces soot (carbon particulates) and carbon monoxide (toxic). Impurities in fuels like sulfur produce SO₂, causing acid rain. High combustion temperatures from engines produce nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), also causing acid rain and respiratory problems.
• 燃料产生的污染物：不完全燃烧产生烟尘（碳颗粒）和一氧化碳（有毒）。燃料中的杂质如硫会产生 SO₂，导致酸雨。发动机内高温燃烧产生氮氧化物 (NOₓ)，也

  Published by TutorHao | GCSE Chemistry Revision Series | aleveler.com

  广告 / Sponsored

  预售 CGP IGCSE Chemistry 化学 Edexcel 爱德思 International GCSE R…

  化学 备考教辅 · 正版现货 · 与本文内容相关

  查看详情 / View on Taobao参考价 ¥279.0

  更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）

  备考资讯每日更新，关注不错过

  考纲变化 · 科目分析 · 学习方法

  

  在微信里长按二维码识别关注
  或截图后用「扫一扫 → 相册」选择本图

  公众号：tutorhao