Introduction: Why Attachment Matters
在AQA A-Level心理学中，Attachment（依恋）是Paper 1的核心模块。Attachment is a close two-way emotional bond where each individual sees the other as essential for emotional security. 你需要掌握从婴儿期互动到成年期关系的完整理论链条。
Caregiver-Infant Interactions
两个关键概念：Reciprocity（相互性）与Interactional Synchrony（互动同步）。Reciprocity is turn-taking — caregiver and infant respond to each other's signals. 互动同步指微观层面的情绪和动作协调。Meltzoff and Moore (1977) found infants at 2-3 weeks imitate facial gestures, suggesting synchrony is innate. 考试区别：Reciprocity强调"轮流"，Synchrony强调"同步性"。Evaluation: well-controlled but hard to infer infant intention from behaviour.
Schaffer & Emerson: Stages of Attachment
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied 60 Glasgow infants longitudinally, visiting monthly for the first year. Four stages: Asocial (0-6w) — similar responses to objects and people. Indiscriminate (6w-7m) — prefers humans, comforted by anyone. Specific (7-9m) — separation and stranger anxiety toward one person. Multiple (9m+) — secondary attachments form. 关键数据：65% first attachment with mother, 75% had father attachment by 18 months. Evaluation：good ecological validity (home observation) but limited sample (1960s Glasgow only).
Role of the Father
Grossmann (2002) found fathers provide more playful stimulation while mothers offer nurturing. Field (1978) showed primary caregiver fathers behaved just like primary caregiver mothers — suggesting role matters more than gender. 考试正确表述：fathers have a qualitatively different role，but can be primary attachment figures when taking on the primary caregiving role.
Animal Studies: Lorenz and Harlow
Lorenz (1935) demonstrated imprinting: goslings followed the first moving object they saw after hatching — innate, irreversible, during a critical period. Harlow (1958) reared infant monkeys with two wire mothers. One provided milk, the other soft cloth. Monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, clinging 17-18 hours per day. This proved attachment is based on contact comfort, not feeding. 长期效果：monkeys grew up socially abnormal — unable to interact or mate. Evaluation: experimental control impossible with humans, but extrapolation from animals is questionable.
Learning Theory vs Bowlby's Monotropic Theory
Learning Theory (Dollard & Miller) claims attachment is learned: food (UCS) → mother (CS) via classical conditioning; feeding reduces hunger via operant conditioning — "cupboard love." Bowlby argued attachment is innate. Key concepts: Monotropy — one primary attachment matters most; Critical Period — first 2.5 years; Internal Working Model — first attachment as template for future relationships; Social Releasers — innate cute behaviours triggering caregiving. 比较：Harlow反驳了learning theory，但monotropy被multiple attachments证据挑战。
Ainsworth's Strange Situation
Ainsworth et al. (1978) designed a controlled observation of 7 episodes triggering attachment behaviours through separation and reunion. Three types: Secure (Type B, 66%) — explores, distressed on separation, easily comforted. Insecure-Avoidant (Type A, 22%) — little distress, avoids contact on reunion. Insecure-Resistant (Type C, 12%) — clings, intensely distressed, resists comfort. Main and Solomon added Disorganised (Type D). Evaluation: high inter-rater reliability (94%) but cultural limitations — may not be valid across all cultures.
Cultural Variations
van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) meta-analysed 32 studies from 8 countries. Secure was most common everywhere, but proportions varied — 75% (Britain) to 50% (China). Intra-cultural variation was 1.5x greater than inter-cultural. Takahashi (1990) found 32% of Japanese infants were insecure-resistant with no avoidant — reflecting Japanese child-rearing where mother-infant separation is rare. 考试要点：basic patterns are universal, but expression is culturally mediated.
Deprivation, Privation, and Romanian Orphans
关键区分：Deprivation = losing an attachment; Privation = never forming one. Bowlby's 44 Thieves (1944): 86% of "affectionless psychopaths" had prolonged maternal separation before age 5. Rutter et al. (2011) tracked 165 Romanian orphans adopted by UK families: those adopted before 6 months showed near-complete recovery; after 24 months showed disinhibited attachment. 证明了sensitive period而非rigid critical period，privation effects can be reversed with early care.
Internal Working Model and Exam Tips
Bowlby's IWM: the first attachment creates a mental template for all future relationships. Hazan and Shaver (1987) found secure adults had happy, trusting relationships; avoidant adults feared intimacy. Bailey et al. (2007) showed IWM transmits across generations. AQA考试技巧：16-mark essays must balance AO1 and AO3. 熟练掌握5个核心研究的作者、年份、方法和发现。Paper 1 Attachment建议用时24-30分钟，为essay留出至少12分钟。
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