📚 IB & WJEC Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | IB WJEC 化学：期末复习提纲
This end-of-term revision checklist draws together the key topics that appear across both the IB Diploma Programme and WJEC A Level Chemistry specifications. Whether you are preparing for IB Paper 1 and Paper 2 or WJEC Units 1 to 5, a structured review of these core areas will help you identify gaps and build confidence. Always cross-reference your own syllabus for the precise depth and assessment weighting of each topic.
这份期末复习提纲汇集了 IB 文凭课程和 WJEC A Level 化学大纲中共同出现的核心主题。无论你正在准备 IB 的试卷一和试卷二，还是 WJEC 的单元一至单元五，对这些核心领域进行系统回顾都有助于你发现知识漏洞、建立信心。请务必对照你自己的课程大纲，确认每个主题在考试中的具体要求与权重。
1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table | 原子结构与周期表
Start with the fundamental particles – protons, neutrons and electrons – and their relative masses and charges. You must be able to deduce atomic number, mass number and isotopic composition. The arrangement of electrons in shells, subshells and orbitals follows the Aufbau principle, Hund's rule and the Pauli exclusion principle. For transition elements, note the exceptional electron configurations of chromium and copper.
从基本粒子——质子、中子、电子——及其相对质量和电荷入手。你必须能够推算出原子序数、质量数和同位素组成。电子在电子层、亚层和轨道中的排布遵循构造原理、洪特规则和泡利不相容原理。对于过渡元素，要记住铬和铜的电子排布是特例。
- Define relative atomic mass and calculate it from isotopic abundance data.
- 定义相对原子质量，并能根据同位素丰度数据计算。
- Interpret first ionisation energy trends across periods and down groups.
- 解释第一电离能沿周期和族的变化趋势。
- Link successive ionisation energies to electron shell structure.
- 将逐级电离能与电子层结构联系起来。
2. Bonding, Structure and Intermolecular Forces | 化学键、结构与分子间作用力
Ionic, covalent and metallic bonding must be described with clear examples. Use 'dot-and-cross' diagrams for covalent molecules and ionic compounds. Understand the concept of electronegativity and how it leads to polar bonds and dipole moments. VSEPR theory is essential for predicting the shapes of molecules and ions such as BeCl₂, BF₃, CH₄, NH₃, H₂O, PCl₅ and SF₆.
必须能够用具体实例描述离子键、共价键和金属键。用电子式（点叉图）表示共价分子和离子化合物。理解电负性的概念及其如何导致极性键和偶极矩。价层电子对互斥理论（VSEPR 理论）对于预测分子和离子的形状必不可少，例如 BeCl₂、BF₃、CH₄、NH₃、H₂O、PCl₅ 和 SF₆。
- Distinguish between giant ionic, giant covalent, giant metallic and simple molecular structures, and relate them to physical properties such as melting point and electrical conductivity.
- 区分巨型离子结构、巨型共价结构、巨型金属结构和简单分子结构，并将它们与熔点、导电性等物理性质联系起来。
- Explain the different types of intermolecular forces: London (dispersion) forces, permanent dipole–dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding, and rank their relative strengths.
- 解释不同类型的分子间作用力：伦敦色散力、永久偶极-偶极作用和氢键，并排列其相对强度。
- Recognise the anomalous properties of water (ice floats, high boiling point) due to hydrogen bonding.
- 认识到由于氢键作用，水具有异常的性质（冰浮在水上、沸点高）。
3. Stoichiometry and the Mole Concept | 化学计量与摩尔概念
14076 × 10²³ elementary entities. You are expected to perform calculations involving mass, volume of gas at STP or RTP, concentration, empirical and molecular formulae, and percentage yield.
所有定量化学都始于摩尔。要准确定义：一摩尔是恰好含有 6.02214076 × 10²³ 个基本微粒的物质的量。你需要掌握涉及质量、标准状况或常温常压下气体体积、浓度、实验式和分子式，以及产率的计算。
- Balance equations including state symbols: e.g. 2Na(s) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g).
- 配平包括状态符号的化学方程式，例如：2Na(s) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g)。
- Solve limiting reactant problems and calculate atom economy.
- 求解限量反应物问题，并计算原子经济性。
- V (gas) / Vₘ, n = cV (solution) where Vₘ = 22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹ at STP or 24.0 dm³ mol⁻¹ at RTP.
- 运用关系式：n = m/M，n = V(气体) / Vₘ，n = cV(溶液)，其中 Vₘ 在 STP 下为 22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹，在 RTP 下为 24.0 dm³ mol⁻¹。
4. Energetics and Thermochemistry | 能量学与热化学
Enthalpy changes (ΔH) for reactions are measured using calorimetry. Know how to define and calculate standard enthalpy changes of combustion, formation and neutralisation. Hess's law allows you to determine enthalpy changes that cannot be measured directly, such as the formation of CO from its elements. Born–Haber cycles link lattice enthalpy to other energetic terms for ionic compounds.
反应焓变 (ΔH) 用热量计来测量。要知道如何定义并计算标准燃烧焓、标准生成焓和标准中和焓。赫斯定律使你能够求出不能直接测量的焓变，例如由单质生成一氧化碳时的焓变。波恩-哈伯循环将晶格焓与离子化合物的其他能量项联系起来。
- Use bond enthalpies to estimate reaction enthalpies, remembering that bond enthalpies are average values for gaseous species.
- 利用键焓估算反应焓变，注意键焓是气态物质的平均值。
- Calculate ΔH using q = mcΔT and account for heat loss in simple calorimeters.
- 用 q = mcΔT 计算 ΔH，并能解释简单热量计的热损失。
- Define entropy (S) and calculate standard entropy change of a system; use ΔG = ΔH – TΔS to predict feasibility.
- 定义熵 (S) 并计算系统的标准熵变；利用 ΔG = ΔH – TΔS 预测反应的自发性。
5. Chemical Kinetics | 化学动力学
Rate of reaction is defined as the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time. The collision theory states that particles must collide with energy greater than or equal to the activation energy and with correct orientation. The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution shows the range of molecular kinetic energies and shifts when temperature is increased or a catalyst is used.
反应速率定义为单位时间内反应物或产物浓度的变化。碰撞理论指出，颗粒必须发生碰撞，且碰撞能量必须大于或等于活化能，并以正确的取向碰撞。麦克斯韦-玻尔兹曼分布展示了分子动能的范围，当温度升高或使用催化剂时，该分布会发生变化。
- ]ᵐ[B]ⁿ, where m and n are orders of reaction, determined experimentally, not from the stoichiometric coefficients.
- 解读速率方程：rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ，其中 m 和 n 是反应级数，由实验测定，而非从化学计量系数获得。
- Sketch and analyse concentration–time and rate–concentration graphs for zero, first and second order reactions.
- 绘制并分析零级、一级和二级反应的浓度-时间图和速率-浓度图。
- Explain the action of catalysts by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy; recognise homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts.
- 解释催化剂通过提供较低活化能的替代路径而起作用；识别均相催化剂和异相催化剂。
6. Chemical Equilibrium | 化学平衡
A dynamic equilibrium exists when the forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates in a closed system. Le Chatelier's principle predicts the direction of shift when a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure (for gases) or temperature. The equilibrium constant K꜀ uses concentrations, while Kₚ uses partial pressures.
当正反应和逆反应在封闭系统中以相等速率进行时，就存在动态平衡。勒夏特列原理可以预测平衡体系在浓度、压强（对气体）或温度变化时的移动方向。平衡常数 K꜀ 使用浓度，而 Kₚ 使用分压。
- Write expressions for K꜀ and Kₚ, including only gases and aqueous species; solids and pure liquids are omitted.
- 写出 K꜀ 和 Kₚ 的表达式，其中只包括气体和溶液中的物种；固体和纯液体不出现。
- Recall that K is only affected by temperature; the effect depends on whether the forward reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
- 记住平衡常数 K 只受温度影响；影响取决于正反应是放热还是吸热。
- Apply equilibrium principles to industrial processes such as the Haber process (N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃) and the Contact process (2SO₂ + O₂ ⇌ 2SO₃).
- 将平衡原理应用于工业过程，如哈柏法 (N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃) 和接触法 (2SO₂ + O₂ ⇌ 2SO₃)。
7. Acids, Bases and pH | 酸、碱与 pH
Brønsted– sociate completely in water, whereas weak acids (e.g. CH₃COOH) only partially ionise. pH = –log₁₀[H⁺] and [H⁺] = 10⁻ᴾᴴ. For monoprotic strong acids, [H⁺] equals the acid concentration.
布朗斯特-劳里理论将酸定义为质子给予体，碱定义为质子接受体。强酸（如 HCl、HNO₃、H₂SO₄）在水中完全电离，而弱酸（如 CH₃COOH）仅部分电离。pH = –log₁₀[H⁺]，[H⁺] = 10⁻ᴾᴴ。对于一元强酸，[H⁺] 等于酸的浓度。
- Calculate the pH of strong bases using Kₙ = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ at 298 K.
- 利用离子积常数 Kₙ = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ (298 K) 计算强碱的 pH。
- Use acid dissociation constant Kₐ and pKₐ to compare acid strengths; construct expressions and perform calculations for weak acids.
- 用酸解离常数 Kₐ 和 pKₐ 来比较酸的强度；写出表达式并对弱酸进行计算。
- Interpret acid–base titration curves (pH vs volume) to select suitable indicators and explain buffer region, equivalence point and half-equivalence point.
- 解读酸碱滴定曲线 (pH–体积)，选择合适的指示剂，并解释缓冲区域、等当点和半等当点。
- Understand how buffer solutions resist changes in pH and apply the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKₐ + log([A⁻]/[HA]).
- 理解缓冲溶液如何抵抗 pH 变化，并应用亨德森-哈塞尔巴尔赫方程：pH = pKₐ + log([A⁻]/[HA])。
8. Redox Processes and Electrochemistry | 氧化还原过程与电化学
Oxidation is loss of electrons; reduction is gain of electrons. Assign oxidation states to all atoms in a species using rules (e.g. O is usually –2, H is +1). A redox reaction is recognised when oxidation states change. Disproportionation is a reaction where the same element is simultaneously oxidised and reduced.
氧化是失去电子，还原是得到电子。利用规则（如 O 通常为 –2，H 为 +1）为物种中所有原子分配氧化态。当氧化态发生变化时，就可以识别出氧化还原反应。歧化反应是指同一元素同时被氧化和被还原的反应。
- Combine half-equations to produce overall redox equations in both acidic and alkaline media.
- 将半反应方程式合并，写出酸性和碱性介质中的完整氧化还原方程式。
- Draw and label an electrochemical cell showing the anode, cathode, salt bridge and direction of electron flow.
- 绘制并标注电化学电池，标明阳极、阴极、盐桥和电子流动方向。
- Calculate standard cell potential E°꜀ₑₗₗ = E°꜀ₐₜₕₒₔₑ – E°ₐₙₒₔₑ and use it to determine the feasibility of a reaction (positive E°꜀ₑₗₗ indicates thermodynamic feasibility).
- 计算标准电池电势 E°꜀ₑₗₗ = E°꜀ₐₜₕₒₔₑ – E°ₐₙₒₔₑ，并用它判断反应的自发可行性（正的 E°꜀ₑₗₗ 表示热力学上可行）。
- Explain the electrolysis of molten salts and aqueous solutions, predicting products at inert electrodes using standard electrode potentials.
- 解释熔融盐和水溶液的电解过程，利用标准电极电势预测惰性电极上的产物。
9. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学
Organic chemistry is a large topic; focus on functional groups, nomenclature (IUPAC rules), reaction types and mechanisms. Revise alkanes (combustion and free-radical substitution), alkenes (electrophilic addition, Markovnikov's rule) and aromatic compounds (electrophilic substitution of benzene). Practice drawing curly-arrow mechanisms for addition, substitution and elimination.
有机化学是一个庞大的主题；要抓住官能团、命名法（IUPAC 规则）、反应类型和反应机理。复习烷烃（燃烧和自由基取代）、烯烃（亲电加成、马氏规则）和芳香族化合物（苯的亲电取代）。多加练习绘制加成、取代和消除反应的弯箭头机理。
- Recognise and name functional groups: halogenoalkanes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, amides and nitriles.
- 识别并命名官能团：卤代烷、醇、醛、酮、羧酸、酯、胺、酰胺和腈。
- oxylic acid; secondary → ketone), reduction of carbonyls, esterification and condensation polymerisation.
- 描述特征反应：卤代烷的亲核取代 (SN1, SN2)、醇的氧化（伯醇→醛→羧酸；仲醇→酮）、羰基的还原、酯化和缩聚反应。
- Interpret infrared spectra to identify functional groups by characteristic absorptions (O–H, C=O, C–O, C–H).
- 解读红外光谱，通过特征吸收峰（O–H, C=O, C–O, C–H）识别官能团。
- Use mass spectrometry to determine relative molecular mass and deduce fragmentation patterns.
- 利用质谱测定相对分子质量并推断碎裂模式。
10. Measurement, Data Processing and Practical Skills | 测量、数据处理与实验技能
Both IB and WJEC qualifications assess your understanding of experimental techniques. Be prepared to discuss methods for measuring rate, enthalpy change, pH, mass loss and gas volume. Accuracy, precision, systematic error and random error need clear definitions and examples. Calculate percentage uncertainty and propagate uncertainties when combining measurements.
IB 和 WJEC 的考试都会评估你对实验技术的理解。准备好讨论测量反应速率、焓变、pH、质量损失和气体体积的方法。要准确定义准确度、精密度、系统误差和随机误差，并举例说明。计算百分不确定度，并在合并测量值时传递不确定度。
- Select appropriate apparatus for specific tasks: burette, pipette, volumetric flask, gas syringe, thermometer, colorimeter.
- 为特定任务选择合适的仪器：滴定管、移液管、容量瓶、气体注射器、温度计、比色计。
- instrument used (e.g. ±0.5°C for a standard thermometer, ±0.05 cm³ for a burette reading).
- 根据所用仪器说明测量值的精密度（例如，普通温度计 ±0.5°C，滴定管读数 ±0.05 cm³）。
- Evaluate an experimental design and suggest improvements to reduce heat loss, limit human reaction time errors, or increase reproducibility.
- 评价实验设计，并提出改进建议以减少热损失、限制人为反应时间误差或提高重现性。
Use this checklist to audit your understanding of each topic. For each bullet point, tick whether you can recall the facts, apply the concepts and solve relevant past-paper questions. Pay extra attention to topics that connect multiple areas, such as linking organic mechanisms to kinetics, or using electrochemical data to explain redox titrations. A week before your end-of-term test, try a full syllabus-specific paper under timed conditions and mark it honestly to pinpoint remaining weaknesses.
利用这份清单来检查你对每个主题的理解程度。针对每个要点，确认自己是否能够回忆事实、应用概念并解答相关真题。要特别注意那些跨越多个领域的主题，比如将有机机理与动力学联系起来，或用电化学数据解释氧化还原滴定。在期末考试前一周，试着在规定时间内完成一套按照考纲要求命制的完整试卷，并诚实地批改，以精确定位仍然存在的薄弱点。
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