📚 Employment and Unemployment: Core Concepts of the Labour Market | 就业与失业：劳动力市场核心概念
The labour market is where workers supply their labour and firms demand it. Understanding how employment is defined, how unemployment is measured, and why it matters is essential for any IGCSE Economics student. This article breaks down the core concepts of the labour market into clear, exam-focused sections.
劳动力市场是工人提供劳动力、企业需求劳动力的场所。理解就业如何定义、失业如何衡量，以及为什么这些问题至关重要，是每一位IGCSE经济学学生必须掌握的内容。本文将劳动力市场的核心概念分为清晰的、紧扣考点的若干小节。
1. The Labour Force | 劳动力
The labour force, also called the working population or economically active population, includes all people of working age who are either employed or actively looking for work. It excludes students, homemakers, retired people, and those unable to work.
劳动力，也称为工作人口或经济活动人口，包括所有处于劳动年龄并且正在就业或积极寻找工作的人。它不包括学生、家庭主妇、退休人员以及无法工作的人。
To be counted in the labour force, a person must satisfy two conditions:
计入劳动力需要满足两个条件：
- They must be of working age (usually 16 to retirement age).
- They must be either employed or unemployed but actively seeking work.
- 必须处于劳动年龄（通常是16岁至退休年龄）。
- 必须正在就业，或者失业但正在积极寻找工作。
The labour force participation rate is the percentage of the working-age population that is in the labour force. It is calculated as:
劳动力参与率是指劳动年龄人口中处于劳动力队伍中的百分比，其计算公式为：
Labour force participation rate = (Labour force ÷ Working-age population) × 100
劳动力参与率 =（劳动力 ÷ 劳动年龄人口）× 100
2. Defining Employment | 就业的定义
Employment is a situation where a person has a paid job, either as an employee working for a firm or as a self-employed person running their own business. Employment may be full-time or part-time, temporary or permanent.
就业是指一个人拥有有酬工作的状态，无论是受雇于企业的雇员，还是经营自己生意的自雇人士。就业可以是全职或兼职，也可以是非永久性或永久性的。
In economics, employment is important because it generates income for individuals, produces goods and services for society, and generates tax revenue for the government. A high level of employment is usually associated with a well-functioning economy.
在经济学中，就业之所以重要，是因为它为个人创造收入，为社会生产商品和服务，并为政府带来税收。高就业水平通常与运行良好的经济相联系。
It is useful to distinguish between the employed and the unemployed. The employed are those who currently have a job. The unemployed are those who are without a job but are actively seeking work and are available to start work.
区分就业者和失业者非常有用。就业者是指目前有工作的人。失业者是指没有工作，但正在积极寻找工作并且可以立即开始工作的人。
3. Defining Unemployment | 失业的定义
Unemployment is the situation where people who are willing and able to work at the going wage rate cannot find a job. It is measured by the number of people in the labour force who are without a job but are actively searching for one.
失业是指那些愿意并能够按现行工资率工作的人却找不到工作的状况。它是用劳动力队伍中没有工作但正在积极寻找工作的人数来衡量的。
This definition has three key elements:
这一定义包含三个关键要素：
- A person must be without a job.
- A person must be actively seeking work.
- A person must be available to start work immediately.
- 该人没有工作。
- 该人正在积极寻找工作。
- 该人能够立即开始工作。
Those who have given up looking for work because they believe no jobs are available are called discouraged workers. They are not counted in the official unemployment figures, which is why the official rate may understate the true level of joblessness.
那些因为认为没有工作可找而放弃寻找工作的人被称为沮丧的工人。他们不计入官方失业数字，这就是为什么官方失业率可能低估了真实的失业水平。
4. Measuring Unemployment: Claimant Count vs. Labour Force Survey | 衡量失业：申领人数统计与劳动力调查
There are two main methods used to measure unemployment in the UK, which are commonly studied in CIE IGCSE Economics:
在英国主要有两种衡量失业的方法，这也是CIE IGCSE经济学中经常学习的：
Claimant Count measures the number of people who are unemployed and claiming unemployment-related benefits (e.g., Jobseeker's Allowance). This method is cheap and quick to collect, but it excludes those who are not eligible for benefits and includes some people who may be working part-time while claiming.
申领人数统计衡量的是失业并领取与失业相关福利（如求职者津贴）的人数。这种方法收集成本低且速度快，但它不包括那些没有资格领取福利的人，同时可能包括一些兼职工作但仍领取福利的人。
Labour Force Survey (or LFS) is a quarterly survey of a sample of households. It uses the International Labour Organization (ILO) definition of unemployment: people without a job who are actively seeking work and are available to start within two weeks. This is considered more accurate than the claimant count.
劳动力调查（或LFS）是对住户样本进行的季度调查。它采用国际劳工组织（ILO）对失业的定义：没有工作、积极寻求工作、并且能够在两周内开始工作的人。这种方法被认为比申领人数统计更准确。
| Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
| Claimant Count | Quick, cheap, no sampling error | Excludes many unemployed, affected by benefit rules |
| Labour Force Survey | Internationally comparable, more accurate | Expensive, sampling error possible |
| 方法 | 优势 | 劣势 |
| 申领人数统计 | 快速、成本低、无抽样误差 | 漏掉许多失业者，受福利规则影响 |
| 劳动力调查 | 国际可比，更准确 | 成本高，可能存在抽样误差 |
5. The Unemployment Rate Formula | 失业率公式
The unemployment rate is the most common measure of unemployment. It expresses the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force.
失业率是衡量失业最常用的指标。它将失业人数表示为劳动力总数的百分比。
Unemployment rate = (Number of unemployed ÷ Labour force) × 100
失业率 =（失业人数 ÷ 劳动力总数）× 100
For example, if a country has 20 million people in its labour force and 1 million of them are unemployed, the unemployment rate is:
例如，如果一个国家有2000万劳动力，其中100万人失业，那么失业率为：
Unemployment rate = (1,000,000 ÷ 20,000,000) × 100 = 5%
失业率 =（1,000,000 ÷ 20,000,000）× 100 = 5%
Note that the base is the labour force, not the total population. Retired people, children, and full-time students are not included in the denominator.
注意，基数是劳动力，而不是总人口。退休人员、儿童和全日制学生不计入分母。
6. Types of Unemployment | 失业的类型
Economists classify unemployment into several types based on its cause. The main types are:
经济学家根据失业的原因将其分为几种类型。主要类型有：
- Frictional unemployment – temporary unemployment that occurs when workers are between jobs, e.g., a graduate searching for their first job.
- Structural unemployment – caused by changes in the structure of the economy, such as the decline of coal mining or the replacement of workers by machines.
- Cyclical unemployment – caused by a fall in aggregate demand during a recession, also called demand-deficient unemployment.
- Seasonal unemployment – caused by predictable changes in demand for labour across seasons, e.g., ski instructors in winter or agricultural workers at harvest time.
- 摩擦性失业——工人在工作之间转换时发生的暂时性失业，例如毕业生寻找第一份工作。
- 结构性失业——由经济结构变化引起，例如煤炭采掘业的衰落或机器取代工人。
- 周期性失业——由经济衰退期间总需求下降引起，也称为需求不足型失业。
- 季节性失业——由不同季节对劳动力需求的可预测变化引起，例如冬季滑雪教练或收获季节的农业工人。
Frictional and structural unemployment are always present to some degree, even when the economy is healthy. Cyclical unemployment is the main concern during recessions.
即使在经济健康时，摩擦性失业和结构性失业也在一定程度上始终存在。周期性失业是经济衰退期间的主要担忧。
7. Full Employment | 充分就业
Full employment does not mean zero unemployment. It means that all those who are willing and able to work at the current wage rate can find a job, given the normal time needed for job search and training.
充分就业并不意味着零失业。它意味着所有愿意并能够按现行工资率工作的人都能找到工作，考虑到寻找工作和培训所需的正常时间。
At full employment, the only unemployment that exists is frictional and structural unemployment. Cyclical unemployment is zero. Full employment is considered a key macroeconomic objective because it maximises output and minimises the social costs of unemployment.
在充分就业状态下，存在的失业仅是摩擦性失业和结构性失业，周期性失业为零。充分就业被视为一个关键的宏观经济目标，因为它使产出最大化并使失业的社会成本最小化。
Full employment = Only frictional and structural unemployment exist
充分就业 = 只存在摩擦性失业和结构性失业
8. Consequences of Unemployment: Economic Costs | 失业的后果：经济成本
Unemployment creates significant costs for individuals, society, and the government. Economically, when workers are unemployed, the economy produces below its potential output. This is called a negative output gap.
失业给个人、社会和政府带来巨大的代价。从经济上讲，当工人失业时，经济产出低于其潜在产出。这被称为负向产出缺口。
- Loss of output – fewer goods and services are produced, so national income falls.
- Loss of tax revenue – the government receives less income tax and indirect tax, and must pay more unemployment benefits.
- Loss of skills – prolonged unemployment erodes workers' skills, reducing their future productivity.
- Increased inequality – unemployment often hits lower-skilled workers hardest, widening the income gap.
- 产出损失——生产的商品和服务减少，国民收入下降。
- 税收损失——政府获得的所得税和间接税减少，并且必须支付更多的失业救济金。
- 技能损失——长期失业侵蚀工人的技能，降低他们未来的生产率。
- 不平等加剧——失业往往对低技能工人打击最大，扩大了收入差距。
Each of these costs feeds back into the economy. Lower income reduces spending, which can lead to even more unemployment – a downward spiral.
这些成本中的每一项都会反馈到经济中。收入减少导致支出减少，从而可能进一步加剧失业——形成向下螺旋。
9. Consequences of Unemployment: Social Costs | 失业的后果：社会成本
Unemployment is not only an economic problem; it also has deep social consequences. Long-term unemployment can damage mental and physical health, increase crime, and break down family structures.
失业不仅仅是经济问题，它还有深刻的社会后果。长期失业会损害身心健康，增加犯罪，并破坏家庭结构。
- Lower self-esteem – unemployed individuals may feel worthless or excluded from society.
- Higher crime rates – some people may turn to illegal activities to replace lost income.
- Worse health – stress and poverty are linked to poorer health and lower life expectancy.
- Social exclusion – unemployed people may become isolated from social networks and community life.
- 自尊心下降——失业者可能感到自己无用或被社会排斥。
- 犯罪率上升——一些人可能为了弥补失去的收入而从事非法活动。
- 健康状况恶化——压力和贫困与健康状况较差和预期寿命缩短有关。
- 社会排斥——失业者可能与社会网络和社区生活隔绝。
These social costs are difficult to quantify but are often more damaging than the pure economic costs. Governments therefore try to reduce unemployment not only for economic efficiency but also for social stability.
这些社会成本难以量化，但往往比纯经济成本更具破坏性。因此，政府不仅为了经济效率，也为了社会稳定而努力减少失业。
10. Causes of Unemployment | 失业的原因
Understanding why unemployment occurs helps economists and policymakers choose appropriate remedies. The main causes relate to demand-side and supply-side factors.
理解失业发生的原因有助于经济学家和政策制定者选择适当的对策。主要原因与需求侧和供给侧因素有关。
Demand-side causes:
需求侧原因：
- Fall in aggregate demand during a recession – firms produce less and need fewer workers.
- Changes in consumer tastes – a fall in demand for a particular product leads to job losses in that industry.
- 经济衰退期间总需求下降——企业产量减少，所需工人减少。
- 消费者偏好的变化——对特定产品需求下降导致该行业失去工作岗位。
Supply-side causes:
供给侧原因：
- Lack of relevant skills – structural unemployment when workers' skills do not match available jobs.
- Geographical immobility – workers cannot move to areas where jobs exist.
- High wage expectations – workers refuse jobs because wages are too low.
- 缺乏相关技能——当工人的技能与现有工作不匹配时出现结构性失业。
- 地理流动性不足——工人无法迁往有工作的地区。
- 过高的工资预期——工人因工资太低而拒绝工作。
Seasonal factors also cause unemployment, but these are predictable and usually temporary.
季节性因素也会导致失业，但这些是可预测的，且通常是临时性的。
11. Policies to Reduce Unemployment | 减少失业的政策
Governments use a mix of demand-side and supply-side policies to reduce unemployment, depending on its cause.
政府根据失业的原因，结合使用需求侧和供给侧政策来减少失业。
Demand-side policies are used mainly to reduce cyclical unemployment:
需求侧政策主要用于减少周期性失业：
- Fiscal policy – cutting taxes or increasing government spending to boost aggregate demand.
- Monetary policy – lowering interest rates to encourage borrowing and investment.
- 财政政策——减税或增加政府支出以提振总需求。
- 货币政策——降低利率以鼓励借贷和投资。
Supply-side policies are used to reduce frictional and structural unemployment:
供给侧政策用于减少摩擦性失业和结构性失业：
- Education and training – improve workers' skills to match job vacancies.
- Labour market reforms – reduce employment protection to make it easier for firms to hire.
- Geographical mobility – subsidise housing or travel costs to help workers move to jobs.
- 教育和培训——提高工人的技能以匹配职位空缺。
- 劳动力市场改革——减少就业保护，使企业更容易雇佣。
- 地理流动性——补贴住房或交通费用以帮助工人迁往工作地点。
No single policy works for all types of unemployment. Policymakers must diagnose the type of unemployment before choosing a policy.
没有一种政策对所有类型的失业都有效。政策制定者在选择政策之前必须诊断失业的类型。
12. Key Points for Exams | 考试要点总结
Make sure you can do the following in an exam:
确保你能够在考试中做到以下几点：
- Define labour force, employment, and unemployment accurately.
- Calculate the unemployment rate using the formula.
- Explain the difference between claimant count and labour force survey.
- Identify and give examples of the four main types of unemployment.
- Analyse the economic and social consequences of unemployment.
- Suggest appropriate policies for each type of unemployment.
- 准确定义劳动力、就业和失业。
- 使用公式计算失业率。
- 解释申领人数统计与劳动力调查之间的区别。
- 识别四种主要失业类型并举例。
- 分析失业的经济和社会后果。
- 为每种失业类型提出适当的政策。
Remember, unemployment is a fallible indicator of labour market health. Always examine the definition and measurement method behind the number before drawing conclusions.
记住，失业率是一个可能有缺陷的劳动力市场健康指标。在得出结论之前，一定要检查数字背后的定义和衡量方法。
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